I have already indicated what seems to me to be the defective element in

the poet's philosophy of life. His theory of knowledge is in need of
revision; and what he asserts of human love, should be applied point by
point to human reason. As man is ideally united with the absolute on the
side of moral emotion (if the phrase may be pardoned), so he is ideally
united with the absolute on the side of the intellect. As there is no
difference of _nature_ between God's goodness and man's goodness, so
there is no difference of nature between God's truth and man's truth.
There are not two kinds of righteousness or mercy; there are not two
kinds of truth. Human nature is not "cut in two with a hatchet," as the
poet implies that it is. There is in man a lower and a higher element,
ever at war with each other; still he is not a mixture, or agglomerate,
of the finite and the infinite. A love perfect in nature cannot be
linked to an intelligence imperfect in nature; if it were, the love
would be either a blind impulse or an erring one. Both morality and
religion demand the presence in man of a perfect ideal, which is at war
with his imperfections; but an ideal is possible, only to a being
endowed with a capacity for knowing the truth. In degrading human
knowledge, the poet is disloyal to the fundamental principle of the
Christian faith which he professed--that God can and does manifest
himself in man.

On the other hand, we are not to take the unity of man with God, of
man's moral ideal with the All-perfect, as implying, on the moral side,
an absolute identification of the finite with the infinite; nor can we
do so on the side of knowledge. Man's moral life and rational activity
in knowledge are the process of the highest. But man is neither first,
nor last; he is not the original author of his love, any more than of
his reason; he is not the divine principle of the whole to which he
belongs, although he is potentially in harmony with it. Both sides of
his being are equally touched with imperfection--his love, no less than
his reason. Perfect love would imply perfect wisdom, as perfect wisdom,
perfect love. But absolute terms are not applicable to man, who is ever
_on the way_ to goodness and truth, progressively manifesting the power
of the ideal that dwells in him, and whose very life is conflict and
acquirement.

"Ah, but a man's reach should exceed his grasp,
Or what's a heaven for? All is silver-grey
Placid and perfect with my art: the worse."[A]

[Footnote A: _Andrea del Sarto_.]

Hardly any conception is more prominent in Browning's writings than
this, of endless progress towards an infinite ideal; although he
occasionally manifests a desire to have done with effort.

"When a soul has seen
By the means of Evil that Good is best,
And, through earth and its noise, what is heaven's serene,--
When our faith in the same has stood the test--
Why, the child grown man, you burn the rod,
The uses of labour are surely done,
There remaineth a rest for the people of God,
And I have had troubles enough, for one."[B]

[Footnote B: _Old Pictures in Florence_.]

It is the sense of endless onward movement, the outlook towards an
immortal course, "the life after life in unlimited series," which is so
inspiring in his early poetry. He conceives that we are here, on this
lower earth, just to learn one form, the elementary lesson and alphabet
of goodness, namely, "the uses of the flesh": in other lives, other
achievements. The separation of the soul from its instrument has very
little significance to the poet; for it does not arrest the course of
moral development.

"No work begun shall ever pause for death."

The spirit pursues its lone way, on other "adventures brave and new,"
but ever towards a good which is complete.

"Delayed it may be for more lives yet,
Through worlds I shall traverse, not a few:
Much is to learn, much to forget
Ere the time be come for taking you."[A]

[Footnote A: _Evelyn Hope_.]

Still the time will come when the awakened need shall be satisfied; for
the need was created in order to be satisfied.

"Wherefore did I contrive for thee that ear
Hungry for music, and direct thine eye
To where I hold a seven-stringed instrument,
Unless I meant thee to beseech me play?"[B]

[Footnote B: _Two Camels_.]

The movement onward is thus a movement in knowledge, as well as in every
other form of good. The lover of Evelyn Hope, looking back in
imagination on the course he has travelled on earth and after,
exclaims--

"I have lived (I shall say) so much since then,
Given up myself so many times,
Gained me the gains of various men,
Ransacked the ages, spoiled the climes."[C]

[Footnote C: _Evelyn Hope_.]

In these earlier poems, there is not, as in the later ones, a maimed, or
one-sided, evolution--a progress towards perfect love on the side of the
heart, and towards an illusive ideal on the side of the intellect.
Knowledge, too, has its value, and he who lived to settle "_Hoti's_
business, properly based _Oun_," and who "gave us the doctrine of the
enclitic _De_," was, to the poet,

"Still loftier than the world suspects,
Living and dying.

"Here's the top-peak; the multitude below
Live, for they can, there:
This man decided not to Live but Know--
Bury this man there?
Here--here's his place, where meteors shoot, clouds form,
Lightnings are loosened,
Stars come and go."[A]

[Footnote A: _A Grammarian's Funeral_.]

No human effort goes to waste, no gift is delusive; but every gift and
every effort has its proper place as a stage in the endless process. The
soul bears in it _all_ its conquests.

"There shall never be one lost good! What was, shall live as before;
The evil is null, is nought, is silence implying sound;
What was good, shall be good, with, for evil, _so_ much good more;
On the earth the broken arcs; in the heaven, a perfect round."[B]

[Footnote B: _Abt Vogler_.]

The "apparent failure" of knowledge, like every apparent failure, is "a
triumph's evidence for the fulness of the days." The doubts that
knowledge brings, instead of implying a defective intelligence doomed to
spend itself on phantom phenomena, sting to progress towards the truth.
He bids us "Learn, nor account the pang; dare, never grudge the throe."

"Rather I prize the doubt
Low kinds exist without,
Finished and finite clods, untroubled by a spark."[A]

[Footnote A: _Rabbi Ben Ezra_.]

Similarly, defects in art, like defects in character, contain the
promise of further achievement.

"Are they perfect of lineament, perfect of stature?
In both, of such lower types are we
Precisely because of our wider nature;
For time, their's--ours, for eternity.

"To-day's brief passion limits their range;
It seethes with the morrow for us and more.
They are perfect--how else? They shall never change:
We are faulty--why not? We have time in store."[B]

[Footnote B: _Old Pictures in Florence_.]

Prior to the period when a sceptical philosophy came down like a blight,
and destroyed the bloom of his art and faith, he thus recognized that
growing knowledge was an essential condition of growing goodness.
Pompilia shone with a glory that mere knowledge could not give (if there
were such a thing as _mere_ knowledge).

"Everywhere
I see in the world the intellect of man,
That sword, the energy his subtle spear,
The knowledge which defends him like a shield--
Everywhere; but they make not up, I think,
The marvel of a soul like thine, earth's flower
She holds up to the softened gaze of God."[A]

[Footnote A: _The Ring and the Book_--_The Pope_, 1013-1019.]

But yet she recognized with patient pain the loss she had sustained for
want of knowledge.

"The saints must bear with me, impute the fault
To a soul i' the bud, so starved by ignorance,
Stinted of warmth, it will not blow this year
Nor recognize the orb which Spring-flowers know."[B]

[Footnote B: _The Ring and the Book_--_Pompilia_, 1515-1518.]

Further on in the Pope's soliloquy, the poet shows that, at that time,
he fully recognized the risk of entrusting the spiritual interests of
man to the enthusiasm of elevated feeling, or to the mere intuitions of
a noble heart. Such intuitions will sometimes guide a man happily, as in
the case of Caponsacchi:

"Since ourselves allow
He has danced, in gaiety of heart, i' the main
The right step through the maze we bade him foot."[C]

[Footnote C: _The Ring and the Book_--_The Pope_, 1915-1917.]

But, on the other hand, such impulses, not instructed by knowledge of
the truth, and made steadfast to the laws of the higher life by a
reasoned conviction, lead man rightly only by accident. In such a career
there is no guarantee of constancy; other impulses might lead to other
ways of life.

"But if his heart had prompted to break loose
And mar the measure? Why, we must submit,
And thank the chance that brought him safe so far.
Will he repeat the prodigy? Perhaps.
Can he teach others how to quit themselves,
Show why this step was right while that were wrong?
How should he? 'Ask your hearts as I asked mine,
And get discreetly through the morrice too;
If your hearts misdirect you,--quit the stage,
And make amends,--be there amends to make.'"[A]

[Footnote A: _The Ring and the Book_--_The Pope_, 1916-1927.]

If the heart proved to Caponsacchi a guide to all that is good and
glorious, "the Abate, second in the suite," puts in the testimony of
another experience: "His heart answered to another tune."

"I have my taste too, and tread no such step!
You choose the glorious life, and may for me!
I like the lowest of life's appetites,--
So you judge--but the very truth of joy
To my own apprehension which decides."[B]

[Footnote B: _Ibid._, 1932-1936.]

Mere emotion is thus an insecure guide to conduct, for its authority can
be equally cited in support of every course of life. No one can say to
his neighbour, "Thou art wrong." Every impulse is right to the
individual who has it, and so long as he has it. _De gustibus non
disputandum_. Without a universal criterion there is no praise or blame.

"Call me knave and you get yourself called fool!
I live for greed, ambition, lust, revenge;
Attain these ends by force, guile: hypocrite,
To-day, perchance to-morrow recognized
The rational man, the type of common-sense."[C]

[Footnote C: _Ibid._, 1937-1941.]

This poem which, both in its moral wisdom and artistic worth, marks the
high tide of Browning's poetic insight, while he is not as yet concerned
with the defence of any theory or the discussion of any abstract
question, contrasts strongly with the later poems, where knowledge is
dissembling ignorance, faith is blind trust, and love is a mere impulse
of the heart. Having failed to meet the difficulties of reflection, the
poet turned upon the intellect. Knowledge becomes to him an offence, and
to save his faith he plucked out his right eye and entered into the
kingdom maimed. In _Rabbi Ben Ezra_ the ascent into another life is
triumphant, like that of a conqueror bearing with him the spoils of
earth; but in the later poems he escapes with a bare belief, and the
loss of all his rich possessions of knowledge, like a shipwrecked
mariner whose goods have been thrown overboard. His philosophy was a
treacherous ally to his faith.

But there is another consideration which shows that the poet, as artist,
recognized the need of giving to reason a larger function than seems to
be possible according to the theory in his later works. In the early
poems there is no hint of the doctrine that demonstrative knowledge of
the good, and of the necessity of its law, would destroy freedom. On the
contrary, there are suggestions which point to the opposite doctrine,
according to which knowledge is the condition of freedom.

While in his later poems the poet speaks of love as an impulse--either
blind or bound to erring knowledge--and of the heart as made to love, in
his earlier ones he seems to treat man as free to work out his own
purposes, and act out his own ideals. Browning here finds himself able
to maintain the dependence of man upon God without destroying morality.
He regards man's impulses not as blind instincts, but as falling
_within_ his rational nature, and constituting the forms of its
activity. He recognizes the distinction between a mere impulse, in the
sense of a tendency to act, which is directed by a foreign power, and an
impulse informed, that is, directed by reason. According to this view,
it is reason which at once gives man the independence of foreign
authority, which is implied in morality, and constitutes that affinity
between man and God, which is implied by religion. No doubt, the impulse
to know, like the impulse to love, was put into man: his whole nature is
a gift, and he is therefore, in this sense, completely dependent upon
God--"God's all, man's nought." But, on the other hand, it _is_ a
rational nature which has been put into him, and not an irrational
impulse. Or, rather, the impulse that constitutes his life as man, is
the self-evolving activity of reason.

"Who speaks of man, then, must not sever
Man's very elements from man."[A]

[Footnote A: _Christmas-Eve_.]

However the rational nature of man has come to be, whether by emanation
or creation, it necessarily brings freedom with it, and all its risks
and possibilities. It is of the very essence of reason that it should
find its law within itself.

"God's all, man's nought:
But also, God, whose pleasure brought
Man into being, stands away
As it were a hand-breadth off, to give
Room for the newly-made to live,
And look at Him from a place apart,
And use his gifts of brain and heart,
Given, indeed, but to keep for ever."[A]

[Footnote A: _Christmas-Eve_.]

Thus, while insisting on the absolute priority of God, and the original
receptivity of man; while recognizing that love, reason, and every inner
power and outer opportunity are lent to man, Browning does not forget
what these powers are. Man can only act as man; he must obey his nature,
as the stock or stone or plant obeys its nature. But to act as man is to
act freely, and man's nature is not that of a stock or stone. He is
rational, and cannot but be rational. Hence he can neither be ruled, as
dead matter is ruled, by natural law; nor live, like a bird, the life of
innocent impulse or instinct. He is placed, from the very first, on "the
table land whence life upsprings aspiring to be immortality." He is a
spirit,--responsible because he is free, and free because he is
rational.

"Man, therefore, stands on his own stock
Of love and power as a pin-point rock,
And, looks to God who ordained divorce
Of the rock from His boundless continent."[B]

[Footnote B: _Ibid._]

The divorce is real, although ordained, but it is possible only in so
far as man, by means of reason, constitutes his own ends of action.
Impulse cannot bring it about. It is reason that enables man to free
himself from the despotic authority of outer law, to relate himself to
an inner law, and by reconciling inner and outer to attain to goodness.
Thus reason is the source of all morality. And it also is the principle
of religion, for it implies the highest and fullest manifestation of the
absolute.

Although the first aspect of self-consciousness is its independence,
which is, in turn, the first condition of morality, still this is only
the first aspect. The rational being plants himself on his own
individuality, stands aloof and alone in the rights of his freedom, _in
order that_ he may set out from thence to take possession, by means of
knowledge and action, of the world in which he is placed. Reason is
potentially absolute, capable of finding itself everywhere. So that in
it man is "honour-clothed and glory-crowned."

"This is the honour,--that no thing I know,
Feel or conceive, but I can make my own
Somehow, by use of hand, or head, or heart."[A]

[Footnote A: _Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau._]

Man, by his knowledge, overcomes the resistance and hostility of the
world without him, or rather, discovers that there is not hostility, but
affinity between it and himself.

"This is the glory,--that in all conceived,
Or felt or known, I recognize a mind
Not mine but like mine,--for the double joy,--
Making all things for me and me for Him."[A]

[Footnote A: _Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau_.]

That which is finite is hemmed in by other things, as well as determined
by them; but the infinite is all-inclusive. There exists for it no other
thing to limit or determine it. There is nothing finally alien or
foreign to reason. Freedom and infinitude, self-determination and
absoluteness, imply each other. In so far as man is free, he is lifted
above the finite. It was God's plan to make man on His own image:--

"To create man and then leave him
Able, His own word saith, to grieve Him,
But able to glorify Him too,
As a mere machine could never do,
That prayed or praised, all unaware
Of its fitness for aught but praise or prayer,
Made perfect as a thing of course."[B]

[Footnote B: _Christmas-Eve_.]

Man must find his law within himself, be the source of his own activity,
not passive or receptive, but outgoing and effective.

"Rejoice we are allied
To That which doth provide
And not partake, effect and not receive!
A spark disturbs our clod;
Nearer we hold of God
Who gives, than of His tribes that take, I must believe."[C]

[Footnote C: _Rabbi Ben Ezra_.]

This near affinity between the divine and human is just what Browning
seems to repudiate in his later poems, when he speaks as if the
absolute, in order to maintain its own supremacy over man, had to stint
its gifts and endow him only with a defective reason. In the earlier
period of the poet there is far less timidity. He then saw that the
greater the gift, the greater the Giver; that only spirit can reveal
spirit; that "God is glorified in man," and that love is at its fullest
only when it gives itself.

In insisting on such identity of the human spirit with the divine, our
poet does not at any time run the risk of forgetting that the identity
is not absolute. Absolute identity would be pantheism, which leaves God
lonely and loveless, and extinguishes man, as well as his morality.

"Man is not God, but hath God's end to serve,
A Master to obey, a course to take,
Somewhat to cast off, somewhat to become."[A]

[Footnote A: _A Death in the Desert_.]

Man, at best, only moves _towards_ his ideal: God is conceived as the
ever-existing ideal. God, in short, is the term which signifies for us
the Being who is eternally all in all, and who, therefore, is hidden
from us who are only moving _towards_ perfection, in the excess of the
brightness of His own glory. Nevertheless, as Browning recognizes, the
grandeur of God's perfection is just His outflowing love. And that love
is never complete in its manifestation, till it has given itself. Man's
life, as spirit, is thus one in nature with that of the absolute. But
the unity is not complete, because man is only potentially perfect. He
is the process _of_ the ideal; his life is the divine activity within
him. Still, it is also man's activity. For the process, being the
process of spirit, is a _free_ process--one in which man himself
energizes; so that, in doing God's will, he is doing his own highest
will, and, in obeying the law of his own deepest nature, he is obeying
God. The unity of divine and human within the spiritual life of man is a
real unity, just because man is free; the identity manifests itself
through the difference, and the difference is possible through the
unity.

Thus, in the light of an ideal which is moral, and therefore perfect--an
ideal gradually realizing itself in a process which is endless--the poet
is able to maintain at once the community between man and God, which is
necessary to religion, and their independence, which is necessary to
morality. The conception of God as giving, which is the main doctrine of
Christianity, and of man as akin with God, is applied by him to the
whole spiritual nature of man, and not merely to his emotion. The
process of evolution is thus a process towards truth, as well as
goodness; in fact, goodness and truth are known as inseparable.
Knowledge, too, is a Divine endowment. "What gift of man is not from God
descended?" What gift of God can be deceptive?

"Take all in a word: the truth in God's breast
Lies trace for trace upon ours impressed:
Though He is so bright and we so dim,
We are made in His image to witness Him."[A]

[Footnote A: _Christmas-Eve_.]

The Pope recognizes clearly the inadequacy of human knowledge; but he
also recognizes that it has a Divine source.

"Yet my poor spark had for its source, the sun;
Thither I sent the great looks which compel
Light from its fount: all that I do and am
Comes from the truth, or seen or else surmised,
Remembered or divined, as mere man may."[B]

[Footnote B: _The Ring and the Book_--_The Pope_, 1285-1289.]

The last words indicate a suspicion of a certain defect in knowledge,
which is not recognized in human love; nevertheless, in these earlier
poems, the poet does not analyze human nature into a finite and
infinite, or seek to dispose of his difficulties by the deceptive
solvent of a dualistic agnosticism. He treats spirit as a unity, and
refuses to set love and reason against each other. Man's _life_, for the
poet, and not merely man's love, begins with God, and returns back to
God in the rapt recognition of God's perfect being by reason, and in the
identification of man's purposes with His by means of will and love.

"What is left for us, save, in growth
Of soul, to rise up, far past both,
From the gift looking to the giver,
And from the cistern to the river,
And from the finite to infinity
And from man's dust to God's divinity?"[C]

[Footnote C: _Christmas-Eve_.]

It is this movement of the absolute in man, this aspiration towards the
full knowledge and perfect goodness which can never be completely
attained, that constitutes man.

"Man, therefore, thus conditioned, must expect
He could not, what he knows now, know at first:
What he considers that he knows to-day,
Come but to-morrow, he will find mis-known;
Getting increase of knowledge, since he learns
Because he lives, which is to be a man,
Set to instruct himself by his past self:
First, like the brute, obliged by facts to learn,
Next, as man may, obliged by his own mind,
Bent, habit, nature, knowledge turned to law.
God's gift was that man shall conceive of truth
And yearn to gain it, catching at mistake,
As midway help till he reach fact indeed?"[A]

[Footnote A: _A Death in the Desert_.]

"Progress," the poet says, is "man's distinctive mark alone." The
endlessness of the progress, the fact that every truth known to-day
seems misknown to-morrow, that every ideal once achieved only points to
another and becomes itself a stepping stone, does not, as in his later
days, bring despair to him. For the consciousness of failure is possible
in knowledge, as in morality, only because there has come a fuller
light. Browning does not, as yet, dwell exclusively on the negative
element in progress, or forget that it is possible only through a deeper
positive. He does not think that, because we turn our backs on what we
have gained, we are therefore not going forward; nay, he asserts the
contrary. Failure, even the failure of knowledge, is triumph's evidence
in these earlier days; and complete failure, the unchecked rule of evil
in any form, is therefore impossible. We deny

"Recognized truths, obedient to some truth
Unrecognized yet, but perceptible,--
Correct the portrait by the living face,
Man's God, by God's God in the mind of man."[A]

[Footnote A: _The Ring and the Book--The Pope_, 1871-1874.]

Thus the poet ever returns to the conception of God in the mind of man.
God is the beginning and the end; and man is the self-conscious worker
of God's will, the free process whereby the last which is first, returns
to itself. The process, the growth, is man's life and being; and it
falls within the ideal, which is eternal and all in all. The spiritual
life of man, which is both intellectual and moral, is a dying into the
eternal, not to cease to be in it, but to live in it more fully; for
spirits necessarily commune. He dies to the temporal interests and
narrow ends of the exclusive self, and lives an ever-expanding life in
the life of others, manifesting more and more that spiritual principle
which is the life of God, who lives and loves in all things. "God is a
being in whom we exist; with whom we are in principle one; with whom the
human spirit is identical, in the sense that He _is_ all which the human
spirit is capable of becoming."[B]

[Footnote B: Green's _Prolegomena to Ethics_, p. 198.]

From this point of view, and in so far as Browning is loyal to the
conception of the community of the divine and human, he is able to
maintain his faith in God, not in spite of knowledge, but through the
very movement of knowledge within him. He is not obliged, as in his
later works, to look for proofs, either in nature, or elsewhere; nor to
argue from the emotion of love in man, to a cause of that emotion. He
needs no syllogistic process to arrive at God; for the very activity of
his own spirit as intelligence, as the reason which thinks and acts, is
the activity of God within him. Scepticism, is impossible, for the very
act of doubting is the activity of reason, and a profession of the
knowledge of the truth.

"I
Put no such dreadful question to myself,
Within whose circle of experience burns
The central truth, Power, Wisdom, Goodness,--God:
I must outlive a thing ere know it dead:
When I outlive the faith there is a sun,
When I lie, ashes to the very soul,--
Someone, not I, must wail above the heap,
'He died in dark whence never morn arose.'"[A]

[Footnote A: _The Ring and the Book--The Pope_, 1631-1639.]

And this view of God as immanent in man's experience also forecloses all
possibility of failure. Beneath the failure, the possibility of which is
involved in a moral life, lies the divine element, working through
contradiction to its own fulfilment. Failure is necessary for man,
because he grows: but, for the same reason, the failure is not final.
Thus, the poet, instead of denying the evidence of his intellect as to
the existence of evil, or casting doubt on the distinction between right
and wrong, or reducing the chequered course of human history into a
phantasmagoria of mere mental appearances, can regard the conflict
between good and evil as real and earnest. He can look evil in the face,
recognize its stubborn resistance to the good, and still regard the
victory of the latter as sure and complete. He has not to reduce it into
a phantom, or mere appearance, in order to give it a place within the
divine order. He sees the night, but he also sees the day succeed it.
Man falls into sin, but he cannot rest in it. It is contradictory to his
nature, he cannot content himself with it, and he is driven through it.
Mephistopheles promised more than he could perform, when he undertook to
make Faust declare himself satisfied. There is not within the kingdom of
evil what will satisfy the spirit of man, whose last law is goodness,
whose nature, however obscured, is God's gift of Himself.

"While I see day succeed the deepest night--
How can I speak but as I know?--my speech
Must be, throughout the darkness. It will end:
'The light that did burn, will burn!' Clouds obscure--
But for which obscuration all were bright?
Too hastily concluded! Sun--suffused,
A cloud may soothe the eye made blind by blaze,--
Better the very clarity of heaven:
The soft streaks are the beautiful and dear.
What but the weakness in a faith supplies
The incentive to humanity, no strength
Absolute, irresistible, comports?
How can man love but what he yearns to help?
And that which men think weakness within strength,
But angels know for strength and stronger yet--
What were it else but the first things made new,
But repetition of the miracle,
The divine instance of self-sacrifice
That never ends and aye begins for man?
So, never I miss footing in the maze,
No,--I have light nor fear the dark at all."[A]

[Footnote A: _The Ring and the Book--The Pope_, 1640-1660.]

[Illustration]