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Reel. If you have no reel, make a couple of gimlet-holes, six inches
apart, in the butt of your rod, at the place where the reel is usually
clamped; drive wooden pegs into these, and wind your spare line round
them, as in fig. 1.
[Fig 1: illustration as described above].
The pegs should not be quite square with the butt, but should slope a
little, each away from the other, that the line may be better retained on
them.
{Fig. 2 and Fig 3--line as described below].
A long line is conveniently wound on a square frame, as shown in the
annexed sketch (fig. 2); and a shorter line, as in fig. 3.
If you have no equivalent for a reel, and if your tackle is slight, and
the fish likely to be large, provide yourself with A bladder or other
float; tie it to the line, and cast the whole adrift.
Trimmers are well known, and are a convenient way of fishing the middle
of a pool, with only a short line. Anything will do for the float--a
bladder or a bottle is very good.
To recover a lost Line, make a drag of a small bushy tree with plenty of
branches, that are so lopped off as to leave spikes on the trunk. This is
to be weighted with a stone, and dragged along the bottom.
Otters.--What is called "an otter" is useful to a person on the shore of
a wide river or lake which he has no other means of fishing: it is a very
successful at first, but soon scares the fish; therefore it is better
suited to a traveller than to an ordinary sportsman. It is made as
follows:--A board of light wood, fourteen inches long and eight inches
high, or thereabouts, is heavily weighted along its lower edge, so as to
float upright in the water; a string like the bellyband of a kite, and
for the same purpose, is fastened to it; and to this belly-band the end
of a line, furnished with a dozen hooks at intervals, is tied. As the
fisherman walks along the bank, the otter runs away from him, and carries
his line and hooks far out into the stream. It is very convenient to have
a large hand-reel to wind and unwind the line upon; but a forked stick
will do very well.
Boat fishing.--In fishing with a long ground-line and many hooks, it is
of importance to avoid entanglements; make a box in which to coil the
line, and a great many deep saw-cuts across the sides, into which the
thin short lines, to which the hooks are whipped, may be jammed.
Fishermen who do not use oars, but paddles, tie a loop to their line:
they put their thumb through the loop, and fish while they paddle.
To see Things deep under Water, such as dead seals, use a long box or
tube with a piece of glass at the lower end; this removes entirely the
glare of the water and the effects of a rippled surface. Mr. Campbell, of
Islay, suggests that a small glass window might be let into the bottom of
the boat: Plate-glass would be amply strong enough. (See
"Water-spectacles.")
Nets.--A small square net may be best turned to account by sinking it in
holes and other parts of a river which fish frequent; throwing in bait to
attract them over it; and then hauling up suddenly. The arrangement shown
in the figure is very common. A seine net may be furnished with bladder
for floats, or else with pieces of light wood charred to make them more
buoyant. The hauling-ropes may be made of bark steeped for three weeks,
till the inner bark separates from the outer, when the latter is twisted
into a rope. (Lloyd.) Wherever small fish are swimming in shoals near the
surface, there the water is sure to be rippled.
[Sketch of net arrangement as described].
Spearing Fish.--The weapon used (sometimes called the "grains") is
identical with Neptune's or Britannia's trident, only the prongs should
be more numerous and be placed nearer together, in order to catch small
fish: the length of the handle gives steadiness to the blow. In spearing
by torchlight, a broad oval piece of bark is coated with wet mud, and in
it a blazing fire is lighted. It is fixed on a stage, or it is held in
the bow of the boat, so high as to be above the spearman's eyes. He can
see everything by its light, especially if the water be not above four
feet deep, and the bottom sandy. But there are not many kinds of wood
that will burn with a sufficiently bright flame; the dry bark of some
resinous tree is often used. If tarred rope can be obtained, it may
simply be wound round a pole fixed in the bow of the boat, and lighted.
Fish can also be shot with a bow and a barbed arrow, to which a string is
attached.
Intoxicating Fish.--Lime thrown into a pond will kill the fish; and the
similar but far more energetic properties of Cocculus Indicus are well
known. Throughout tropical Africa and in South America, the natives catch
fish by poisoning them. Dams are made, which, when the river is very low,
Enclose deep pools of water with no current; into these the poison is
thrown: it intoxicates the fish, which float and are taken by the hand.
Otters, Cormorants, and Dogs.--Both otters and cormorants are trained to
catch fish for their masters; and dogs are trained by the Patagonians to
drive fish into the nets, and to frighten them from breaking loose when
the net is being hauled in. Cormorants, in China, fish during the winter
from October to May, working from 10 A.M. to 5 P.M., at which hour their
dinner is given to them. When they fish, a straw tie is put round their
necks, to keep them from swallowing the fish, but not so tight as to slip
down and choke them. A boat takes out ten or twelve of these birds. They
obey the voice: if they are disobedient, the water near them is struck
with the back of the oar; as soon as one of them has caught a fish, he is
called to the boat, and the oar is held out for him to step upon. It
requires caution to train a cormorant, because the bird has a habit, when
angry, of striking with its beak at its instructor's eye with an
exceedingly rapid and sure stroke.
SIGNALS.
Colomb and Bolton's flashing signals, adopted in our Army and Navy, and
used in many other countries as well, are eminently suited to the wants
of an expedition. Anything may be used for signalling, that appears and
disappears, like a lantern, or an opened and closed umbrella, or that
moves, as a waved flag or a person walking to and fro on the crest of a
hill against the sky. Sound also can be employed, as long and short
whistles. Their use can be thoroughly taught in two hours, and however
small the practice of the operators, communication, though slow, is
fairly accurate, while in practised hands its rapidity is astonishing.
The proportion of time occupied by the flashes and intervals is as
follows. (I extract all the rest of the article from the pamphlet
published by the inventors of the system.)
Flashing Signals, with Flags.--Supposing the short flash to be half a
second in duration, the long flash should be fully a second and a half.
The interval between the flashes forming a figure should be equal to a
short flash, and the interval between two figures should be equal to a
long flash. After the last figure of the signal is finished, there should
be a pause equal to at least one-third of the time taken up by the
figures. After this pause, the signal should be again repeated with the
same measured flashes and intervals, and so continued until answered by
all to whom it is addressed.
[Example of Morse code].
Care must be taken never to commence a fresh signal before the answers to
the last have ceased; and signals are never to be answered until their
repetitions have been observed a sufficient number of times to make an
error impossible.
[Fig. 1 and Fig 2--sketch of signalling with flags as described below].
The signalman may work from left to right, or from right to left, as
shown in figs. 1 and 2, according to convenience and the direction of the
wind. To make a short flash, the flag is waved from a to b, and back to
the normal position a. To make a long flash, the flag is waved from a to
c, and back to the normal position a.
The numerals 1 to 5 are, therefore, denoted by one to five waves of the
flag from a to b, recovering to a.
The numeral 6 by a wave from a to c, recovering to a. The numeral 7 by a
wave from a to b, back to a, and then to c, recovering to the normal
position a. The numeral 8 is denoted by a wave from a to c, back to a,
and then to b, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 9 is
denoted by two waves from a to b, and one from a to c. The numeral 0 by
one wave from a to c, recovering again to a, and then two waves from a to
b. The other signs are made in the same manner, so that a short motion
shall always represent a short flash, and a long motion a long flash.
On the completion of the motions required for each sign, the flag must
always be brought to the position a. When the word, or group of figures,
is completed, the flag may be lowered in front of the body.
In receiving a message, the flag should always be kept in the position a,
except when answering.
In waving the flag, the point of the staff should be made to describe a
figure of 8 in the air to keep the flag clear.
Each signal party must consist of not less than two men, whose duties
will be as follows:--
In receiving messages: No. 1 works the flag for answering, etc., and
refers to the code for the interpretation of the numbers received, and
calls out the words to No. 2. No. 2 fixes the telescope and reads from
the distant station, calling out the numbers as they are made for the
information of No. 1, and writes down the numbers and meaning thereof.
Suppose station "A" in communication with station "B":--No. 1 at "A" on
being told by No. 2 that "B" is about to send a message, takes up his
position at attention, holding the flag over the left arm and under the
right, or vice versa across his body, according to the wind, with the
code book in his hand. No. 2 fixes his eyes on the glass, and on
receiving the numbers from "B" calls them out to No. 1, who ascertains
their meaning from the code, and gives the words to No. 2, who writes
them down in his book, and then placing his eye to the glass, tells No. 1
to make the answer. No. 2 does not, however, direct the answer to be made
until he is sure of the correctness of the signal received.
Flashing Alphabet, for Use without a Code.--The following alphabet,
etc., can be used under circumstances when it is not convenient or
possible to have recourse to the Signal Book, and forms in itself a
perfect telegraphic system, necessarily somewhat slow in its application,
but having the great advantage of requiring very little previous
knowledge and practice to work with correctness. The symbols and numbers
expressing the alphabet are identical with those forming the alphabet in
the Signal Book.
[Chart with code signals].
All particulars as to the machines and lanterns used in the Service, for
making these flashing signals, and the code, can be procured at W. Nunn and
Co.'s Army and Navy Lamp and Signal Works, 65, George Street East,
London, E.
Reflecting the Sun with a Mirror.--To attract the notice of a division
of your party, five or even ten miles off, glitter a bit of looking-glass
in the sun, throwing its flash towards where you expect them to be. It is
quite astonishing at how great a distance the gleam of the glass will
catch the sharp eyes of a bushman who has learnt to know what it is. It
is now a common signal in the North American prairies. (Sullivan.) It
should be recollected that a passing flash has far less briliancy than
one that dwells for an appreciable time on the retina of the observer;
therefore the signaller should do all he can to steady his aim. I find
the steadiest way of holding the mirror is to rest the hand firmly
against the forehead, and to keep the eyes continually fixed upon the
same distant object. The glare of the sun that is reflected from each
point of the surface of a mirror forms a cone of light whose vertical
angle is constant, and equal to that subtended by the sun. Hence when a
flash is sent to a distant place, the size of the mirror is of no
appreciable importance in affecting the size of the area over which the
flash is visible. That area is the section of the fasciculus of cones
that proceed from each point of the mirror, which, in the case we have
supposed, differs immaterially from the cone reflected from a single
point. Hence, if a man watches the play of the flash from his mirror upon
a very near object, it will appear to him of the shape and size of the
mirror; but as he retreats from the object, the edges of the flash become
rounded, and very soon the flash appears a perfect circle, of precisely
the same apparent diameter as the disc of the sun: it will, in short,
look just like a very faint sun. The signaller has to cause this disc of
light to cover the person whose notice he wishes to attract. I will
proceed to show how he can do so; but in the mean time it will be evident
that a pretty careful aim is requisite, or he will fail in his object.
The steadiness of his aim must be just twice as accurate, neither more
nor less, as would suffice to point a rifle at the sun when it was
sufficiently obscured by a cloud to bear being looked at: for the object
of the aim is of the same apparent size, but a movement of a mirror
causes the ray reflected from it to move through a double angle.
The power of these sun-signals is extraordinarily great. The result of
several experiments that I made in England showed that the smallest
mirror visible under atmospheric conditions such that the signaller's
station was discernible, but dim, subtended an angle of only one-tenth of
a second of a degree. It is very important that the mirror should be of
truly plane and parallel glass, such as instrument-makers procure; the
index glass of a full-sized sextant is very suitable for this purpose:
there is a loss of power when there is any imperfection in the glass. A
plane mirror only three inches across, reflects as much of the sun as a
globe of 120 feet diameter; it looks like a dazzling star at ten miles'
distance.
To direct the flash of the Mirror.--There are makeshift ways of
directing the flash of the mirror; as, by observing its play on an object
some paces off, nearly in line with the station it is wished to
communicate with. In doing this, two cautions are requisite: first, the
distance of the object must be so large compared to the diameter of the
mirror that the play of the flash shall appear truly circular and exactly
like a faint sun (see preceding paragraph): secondly, be careful to bring
the eye to the very edge of the mirror; there should be as little
"dispart" as possible, as artillerymen would say. Unless these cautions
be attended to very strictly, the flash will never be seen at the distant
station.
[Sketch of arrangement as described below].
An object, in reality of a white colour but apparently dark, owing to its
being shaded, shows the play of a mirror's flash better than any other.
The play of a flash, sent through an open window, on the walls of a room,
can be seen at upwards of 100 yards. It is a good object by which to
adjust my hand heliostat, which I describe below. Two bits of paper and a
couple of sticks, arranged as in the drawing, serve pretty well to direct
a flash. Sight the distant object through the holes in the two bits of
paper, A and B, at the ends of the horizontal stick; and when you are
satisfied that the stick is properly adjusted and quite steady, take your
mirror and throw the shadow of A upon B, and further endeavour to throw
the white speck in the shadow of A, corresponding to its pin-hole in it,
through the centre of the hole in B. Every now and then lay the mirror
aside, and bend down to see that A B continues to be properly adjusted.
Hand Heliostat.--Some years ago, I took great pains to contrive a
convenient pocket instrument, by which a traveller should be able to
signal with the sun, and direct his flash with certainty, in whatever
direction he desired. I did so in the belief that a signalling power of
extraordinary intensity could thus be made use of; and, I am glad to say,
I succeeded in my attempt. I at last obtained a pretty pocket instrument,
the design of which I placed in the hands of Messrs. Troughton and Simms;
and upon the earlier models of which I read a paper before the British
Association in 1858. I called it a "hand heliostat." I always carry one
when I travel, for it is a continual source of amusement. The instrument
is shown in fig. 1 (p. 280), and its principle is illustrated by fig. 2.
The scale is about 2/3.
E is the eye of the signaller; M the mirror; and L, S, fig. 2, a tube
containing at one end, L, a lens, and at the other, S, a screen of white
porcelain or unpolished ivory, placed at the exact solar focus of L: a
shade, K, with two holes in it, is placed before L. Let R, r, be portions
of a large pencil of parallel rays, proceeding from any one point on the
sun's surface, and reflected from the mirror, as R' r' (fig. 2). R'
impinges upon the lens, L, through one of the holes in K, and R' goes
free toward some distant point, O. Those that impinge on the lens will be
brought to a focus on S, where a bright speck of light might be seen.
This speck radiates light in all direction; some of the rays, proceeding
from it, impinge on the lens at the other hole in the shade K, as shown
in fig. 2, and are reduced by its agency to parallelism with r' and R',
that is, with the rays that originally left the mirror: consequently E,
looking partly at the edge of the lens, and partly into space, sees a
bright speck of light in the former, coincident with the point O in the
latter.
[Fig 1 and Fig 2, as described in the text].
What is true for one point in the sun's disc, is true for every point in
it. Accordingly, the signaller sees an image of the sun, and not a mere
speck of light, in the lens; and the part of the landscape which that
image appears to overlay, is precisely that part of it over which the
flash from his mirror extends; or, in other words, it is that from any
point of which a distant spectator may see some part or other of the
sun's disc reflected in the mirror. There is no difficulty in signalling
when the sun is far behind the back, if the eye-tubes are made to pull
out to a total length of five inches, otherwise the shadow of the head
interferes. For want of space, the drawing represents the tubes as only
partly drawn out. The instrument is perfectly easy to manage, and letters
can be signalled by flashes. Its power is perfectly marvellous. On a day
so hazy that colours on the largest scale--such as green fields and white
houses--are barely distinguishable at seven miles' distance, a
looking-glass no larger than the finger-nail transmits its signals
clearly visible to the naked eye.
I have made a makeshift arrangement on the principle of my heliostat,
using the object glass of an opera-glass for the lens, and an ordinary
looking-glass: the great size and short focus of the object glass is a
great convenience when using a mirror with a wide frame.
Professor W. H. Miller, the Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, has
since invented a yet more compact method of directing the flash, which he
has described in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1865. It
consists of a plate of silvered glass, one of whose rectangular corners
is accurately ground and polished. On looking into the corner when the
glass is properly held an image of the sun is seen, which overlays the
actual flash. Beautifully simple as this instrument is, I do not like it
so much as my own, for the very fact of its requiring no "setting" is its
drawback. With mine, when the image of the sun is lost it is immediately
found again by simply rotating the instrument on its axis; but with
Professor Miller's the image must be felt for wholly anew.
Fire Signals.--Fire-beacons, hanging up a lantern, or setting fire to an
old nest high up in a tree, serve as night-signals; but they are never to
be depended on without previous concert, as bushes and undulations of the
ground will often hide them entirely. The sparks from a well-struck flint
and steel can be seen for much more than a mile.
Smoke Signals.--The smoke of fires is seen very far by day; and green
wood and rotten wood make the most smoke. It is best to make two fires
100 yards apart, lest your signalling should be mistaken for an ordinary
fire in the bush. These double fires are a very common signal to vessels
in the offing, on the African coast.
Other Signals.--By Sight.--A common signal for a distant scout is, that
he should ride or walk round and round in a circle from right to left, or
else in one from left to right.
Mr. Parkyns, speaking of Abyssinia, describes the habits of a caste of
robbers in the following words:--"At other times they will lie concealed
near a road, with scouts in every direction on the look-out; yet no one
venturing to speak, but only making known by signs what he may have to
communicate to his companions or leader. Thus he will point to his ear
and foot on hearing footsteps, to his eyes on seeing persons approach, or
to his tongue if voices be audible; and will also indicate on his fingers
the numbers of those coming, describing also many particulars as to how
many porters, beasts of burden or for riding, there may be with the
party."
A kite has been suggested as a day signal; and also a kite with some kind
of squib, let off by a slow-light and attached to its tail, as one by
night. (Colonel Jackson.)
Sound.--Whistling through the fingers can be heard at considerable
distances: the accomplishment should be learnt. Cooing in the Australian
fashion, or jvdling in that of the Swiss, are both of them heard a long
way. The united holloa of many voices, is heard much further than
separate cries. The cracking of a whip has a very penetrating sound.
Smells.--An abominable smell arrests the attention at night.
Letters carried by Animals.--In short reconnoitring expeditions made by a
small detachment from a party, the cattle or dogs are often wild, and run
home to their comrades on the first opportunity; in the event of not
being able to watch them, owing to accident or other cause, advantage may
be taken of their restlessness, by tying a note to one of their necks,
and letting them go and serve as postmen, or rather as carrier-pigeons.
BEARINGS BY COMPASS, SUN, ETC.
Pocket Compass.--A pocket compass should not be too small; if one of the
little toy compasses be carried in the pocket, it should be as a reserve,
and not for regular use. A toy compass will of course tell N. from
N.N.E., and the like; and that may be very useful information, but the
traveller will find that he constantly needs more precise directions. He
doubts the identity of some hill or the destination of some path, and
finds on referring to his map, that the difference of bearing upon which
he must base his conclusion, is small: he therefore requires a good sized
compass, to determine the bearing with certainty. One from 1 1/2 to 2
inches in diameter is practically the best. It should have plenty of
depth, so that the card may traverse freely, even when the instrument is
inclined: it should be light in weight, that it may not be easily jarred
by a blow; the catch that relieves the card, when the instrument is
closed, should be self-acting and should act well: lastly the movements
of the needle should be quick; one that makes slow oscillations should be
peremptorily refused, whatever its other merits may be: the graduation of
the degrees on the card should be from 0 degrees to 360 degrees, North
being 0 degrees and East 90 degrees. I wish some optician would make
aluminum cards. The material can be procured as foil, like tinfoil. It
can then be stamped and embossed, in which case it retains its shape
perfectly, but I cannot satisfy myself as to a good pattern, nor do I see
how to make the North and South halves of the disc sufficiently different
in appearance.
Compass for use at night.--The great majority of compasses are well-nigh
useless in the dark, that is, when it is most important to be able to
consult them. They are rarely so constructed, that the difference between
the north and south sides is visible by moonlight or by the light of a
cigar or piece of tinder. The more modern contrivances are very
effective; in these the southern half of the compass card is painted
black, the northern being left white. With a very faint light, this
difference can be appreciated. In compasses consisting simply of a
needle, the north end of the needle should have a conspicuous arrow-head.
It is extraordinary how much the power of seeing a compass or a watch at
night is increased by looking nearly at it through a magnifying-glass.
Thus, young people who can focus their vision through a wide range may be
observed poring with their eyes close to their books when the light
wanes. So again, at night-time, a placard, even in large type, is
illegible at a short distance, but easily read on approaching it. It
seems, in order that a faint image on the retina should be appreciated by
the nerves of sight, that image must have considerable extent.
Moonlight or the light of a cigar may be condensed on the compass by a
burning glass, or other substitute for it. (See "Burning Glass.")
True and Magnetic Bearings.--The confusion between true and magnetic
bearings is a continual trouble, even to the most experienced travellers.
Sir Thomas Mitchell's exploring party very nearly sustained a loss by
mistaking the one for the other. I recommend that the points of the
compass, viz. North, N.N.E., etc., should be solely used for the
traveller for his true bearings; and the degrees, as 25 degrees (or N. 25
degrees E.), for his magnetic. There would then be no reason why the two
nomenclatures should interfere with one another, for a traveller's
recollection of the lay of a country depends entirely upon true
bearings--or sunrise, sunset, and the stars--and is expressed by North,
N.N.E., etc.; but his surveying data which find no place in his memory,
but are simply consigned to his note-book, are necessarily registered in
degrees. To give every facility for carrying out this principle, a round
of paper should be pasted in the middle of the traveller's pocket-compass
card, just large enough to hide the ordinary rhumbs, but leaving
uncovered the degrees round its rim. On this disk of paper the points of
the compass (true bearings) should be marked so as to be as exact as
possible for the country about to be visited.
Errors in Magnetic Bearings.--The compass-needle is often found to be
disturbed, and sometimes apparently bewitched, when laid upon hill-tops;
even when they consist of bare masses of granite. The disturbance is
easily accounted for by the hornblende in the granite, or by other
iron-bearing rocks. Explorers naturally select hills as their points of
triangulation; but compass observations on hill-tops, if unchecked by a
sextant observation of the sun's bearings, are never so reliable as those
taken on a plain.
[Sketch of card as described on following pages].
Bearings by Sun and Stars.--It requires very great practice to steer well
by stars, for, on an average, they change their bearings even faster than
they change their altitudes. In tropical countries, the zodiacal stars -
as Orion and Antares--give excellent east and west points. The Great
Bear is useful when the North Pole cannot be seen, for you may calculate
by the eye whereabout it would be in the heavens when the "pointers" were
vertical, or due north; and the Southern Cross is available in precisely
the same way. The true North Pole is about 1 1/2 degree or 3 diameters of
the full moon, apart from the Pole star; and its place is on a line
between the Pole Star and the Great Bear. An almanac, calculated to show
the bearing, and the times of moonrise and moonset, for the country to be
travelled over, as well as those of sunrise and sunset, would be a very
great convenience; it would be worth while for a traveller accustomed to
such calculations to make one for himself.
Diagram.--The diagram (preceding page) is intended to be traced in lines
of different colours, when it will be found to be far less confused than
at present.
Its object is to enable a traveller to use the sun, both as a rude watch
and as a compass. The diagram is calculated for the latitude of London,
but will do with more or less accuracy for the whole of England. A
traveller going to other countries may easily draw up one for himself,
and on a larger scale if he prefers it, by using the Azimuth tables and
the Horary tables of Lynn.
The diagram represents, 1st, circles of equal altitudes; 2ndly, the path
of sun, stars, etc., for each 10th degree of declination; 3rdly, the hour
angles, all projected down upon--4thly--the level compass card.
Thus, six circles are drawn round the centre of the compass card at equal
distances apart, each ring between them representing a space of 15
degrees in altitude.
The following angles were then calculated for each 10th degree of
declination in turns, viz.:--The height of the sun, etc., when above the
horizon at each point of the compass. 2ndly, the bearing of the sun at
each consecutive hour. These points were dotted out; and, by joining the
several sets of them, the drawing was made.
The broken lines which diverge in curves from P are hour lines; those
which surround P in more or less complete ovals, are the paths of the sun
and stars, for each 10th degree of declination; the prominent line
running from E. round to W. being its path when on the Equator.
The diagram, when it is traced out for use, should have the names of the
months written in coloured ink on either side of the south line at places
corresponding to the declination of the sun during those months: viz.:--
January S. 23 degrees to S. 17 degrees
February S. 17 " S. 8
March S. 7 " N. 4
April N. 5 " N. 15
May N. 15 " N. 22
June N. 22 " N. 23
July N. 23 " N. 18
August N. 18 " N. 8
September N. 8 " S. 3
October S. 3 " S. 14
November S. 15 " S. 22
December S. 22 " S. 23
To use the card.--Draw a broad pencil line, which may afterwards be
rubbed out, corresponding to the date of travel, and there will be no
further confusion.
Then, to know what o'clock it is, "span out" (see "Spanning") roughly the
altitude of the sun. The point in the diagram where the altitude so
obtained crosses the pencil mark, corresponds to the position of the sun.
The hour is then read off; and the compass bearings on the diagram are
adjusted by holding it level, and turning it round until a line, drawn
from its centre through the point in question, points towards the sun. As
to the moon or a star, if its declination be unknown, but its bearing and
altitude being given, its declination and path may be found, and
therefore the time since its rising or before its setting; a most useful
piece of information to a traveller. Watches break, and compasses cannot
be used on horseback without stopping, and therefore a diagram of this
description, of which any number of copies can be traced out, may be of
use for rough purposes.
Other Signs of Direction.--Bearings by the Growth of Trees.--In exposed
situations and near the sea, the growth of trees is rarely symmetrical;
they betray by their bent heads and stunted branches the direction of the
prevalent influences most adverse to their growth. This direction is
constant over wide districts in a flat country, but cannot be equally
relied upon in a hilly one, where the mountains and valleys affect the
conditions of shade and shelter, and deflect the course of the wind.
Moss grows best where there is continuous damp, therefore it prefers that
side of a tree which affords the most suitable combination of exposure to
damp winds and shelter from the sun. When the winds do not differ
materially in dampness, the north side of the forest trees are the most
thickly covered with moss.
Bearings by the shape of Ant-hills.--That most accurate observer, Pierre
Huber, writes as follows concerning the nests of the yellow ants, which
are abundantly to be found in the Swiss Alps and in some other
mountainous countries. It must be recollected, in reading his statement,
that the chief occupation of ants is to move their eggs and larvae from
one part of the nest to another, to ensure them a warm and equable
temperature; therefore, it is reasonable to expect that the nests of ants
should be built on a uniform principle as regards their shape and aspect.
Huber says "they serve as a compass to mountaineers when they are
surrounded by thick mists, or have lost their way during the night; they
do so in the following manner:--The ant-hills (of the yellow ants),
which are by far more numerous and more high in the mountains than
anywhere else, are longer than they are broad, and are of a similar
pattern in other respects. Their direction is invariably from east to
west. Their highest point and their steepest side are turned towards the
point of sunrise in the winter-time (au levant d'hiver), and they descend
with a gradual slope in the opposite direction. I have verified these
experiences of the shepherds upon thousands of ant-hills, and have found
a very small number of exceptions; these occurred only in the case where
the ant-hills had been disturbed by men or animals. The ant-hills do not
maintain the constancy of their form in the lowlands, where they are more
exposed to such accidents."
Ripple-marks on Snow or Sand.--The Siberians travel guided by the ripples
in the snow, which run in a pretty fixed direction, owing to the
prevalence of a particular wind. The ripples in a desert of sand are
equally good as guides; or the wind itself, if it happens to be blowing,
especially to a person pushing through a tangled belt of forest. Before
leaving a well-known track, and striking out at night into the broad open
plain, notice well which way the wind blows as regards the course you are
about to pursue.
Flight of Birds.--I have read somewhere that in the old days coasting
sailors occasionally took pigeons with them, and when they had lost their
bearings they let one fly, which it did at once to the land.
To follow a Track at Night.--Where the track is well marked, showers of
sparks, ably struck with a flint and steel, are sufficient to show it,
without taking the pains of making a flame.
Smell of an Old Track.--The earth of an old and well-trodden road has a
perceptible smell, from the dung and trampling of animals passing over
it, especially near to encampments. It is usual at night, when a guide
doubts whether or no he is in the track, to take up handfuls of dirt and
smell it. It is notorious that cattle can smell out a road.
MARKS FOR THE WAY-SIDE.
Marks on Trees--Cutting Marks.--A very excellent "tree-line" is made by
cutting deep notches in a line of trees, starting from some conspicuous
object, so that the notches will face the men that are to be guided by
it: the trees must be so selected that three, or at least two of them,
are in sight at once. The notch or sliced bark of a tree is called a
"blaze" in bush language. These blazed trees are of much use as
finger-posts on a dark night. They are best made by two persons; one
chipping the trees on his right, and the other those on his left. If the
axes are quite sharp, they only need to be dropped against the tree in
order to make the chip. Doing so, hardly retards a person in his walking.
Another way more suitable to some kinds of forests, is to strike the
knife into the left side of the tree, to tear down a foot of bark, and to
leave the bark hanging, for a double extent of white surface is shown in
this way. Also, to break down tops of saplings and leave them hanging:
the undersides of the leaves being paler than the upper, and the
different lines of the reversed foliage make a broken bush to look
unnatural among health trees, and it quickly arrests the attention. If
you want a tree to be well-scored or slashed, so as to draw attention to
it without fail, fire bullets into it, as into a mark, and let the
natives cut them out in their own way, for the sake of the lead. They
will effect your purpose admirably, without suspecting it.
Stamping Marks on Trees.--The keepers of some of the communal forests in
Switzerland are provided with small axes, having the back of the axe-head
worked into a large and sharp die, the impression of the die being some
letter or cipher indicating the commune. When these foresters wish to
mark a tree, they give it first a slice with the edge of the axe, and
then (turning the axe) they deal it a heavy blow with the back of the
axe-head. By the first operation they prepare a clean surface for their
mark; and, by the second, they stamp their cipher deeply into the wood.
Branding Trees.--Some explorers take branding irons, and use them to mark
each of their camping-places with its number. This is especially useful
in Australian travel, where the country is monotonous, and there are few
natives to tell the names of places.
Faggot hung to a Tree.--A bundle of grass or twigs about 2 feet long,
slung by its middle athwart a small tree, at the level of the eye, by the
side of a path, is well calculated to catch the attention. Its lines are
so different to those seen elsewhere in the forest, that it would be
scarcely possible to overlook it.
Boat or Canoe Routes through lakes well studded with islands, can be well
marked by trimming conspicuous trees until only a tuft of branches is
left at the top. This is called, in the parlance of the "Far West," a
"lopstick."
Wooden Crosses.--A simple structure like fig. 1 is put together with a
single nail or any kind of lashing. It catches the attention immediately.
[Fig. 1. Sketch of cross as described].
Marks with Stones.--Marks cut on Stone.--I have observed a very simple
and conspicuous permanent mark used in forest-roads, as represented in
fig. 2. The stone is 8 inches above ground, 3 1/2 wide, 8 inches long:
the mark is black and deeply cut. An arrow-head may be chiselled in the
face of a rock and filled with melted lead. With a small "cold" chisel, 3
inches long and 1/4 inch wide, a great deal of stone carving may be
readily effected.
[Sketch of stone with incised cross].
Piles of Stones.--Piles of stones are used by the Arabs in their deserts,
and in most mountain-tracts. "An immense length of the road, both in the
government of the Don Cossacks and in that of Tambov, is marked out on a
gigantic scale by heaps of stones, varying from 4 to 6 feet high. These
are visible from a great distance; and it is very striking to see the
double row of them indicating the line of route over the Great Steppe -
undulations which often present no other trace of the hand of man."
(Spottiswoode.)
[Sketch of piled stones].
Gipsy Marks.--When gipsies travel, the party that goes in advance leaves
marks at cross-roads, in order to guide those who follow. These marks are
called "patterans;" there are three patterans in common use. One is to
pluck three large handfuls of grass and to throw them on the ground, at a
short distance from one another, in the direction taken; another is, to
draw a cross on the ground, with one arm much longer than the rest, as a
pointer--a cross is better than any other simple mark, for it catches
many different lights. (In marking a road, do not be content with marking
the dust--an hour's breeze or a shower will efface it; but take a
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