"The outside must now be covered with pitched canvas, thus:--
"Turn it upside down, in a sheltered spot exposed to the sun, or warm it
by other means, and have a caldron of boiling pitch on a fire at hand,
also have sufficient canvas sewn together in breadths as will quite cover
the boat, bottom and sides; then, beginning across the middle of the
bottom, brush on a layer 3 or 4 inches wide of the boiling pitch, and
quickly press down the corresponding central portion of the canvas upon
it; work on thus, from the centre of the bottom to the ends, laying on a
breadth of pitch, and then pressing down and stretching a portion of
canvas over it; then turn down the canvas over each side, and pitch in
the same way, butting out the parts of the canvas that would overlap too
much at the bends, but leaving no tin uncovered; the boat may then be
righted, the excess of canvas cut off, and the edge laid down with pitch,
a little short of the gunwale.

"The bottom may then be pitched over the canvas for 6 inches up, and the
rest of the outside, with the inside, be painted with two or three coats.

"A flooring of thin planking for 3 1/2 feet of the central portion of the
boat must now be made as follows:--Make five planks, between 8 and 9
inches wide, to fit across the beam of the boat, and in each of the outer
planks, o o, p p, fig. III., fix uprights m n, 6 inches high, to support
a seat, mortised on the pair of uprights in each board; the ends of each
seat should be short of the breadth of the boat by an inch or so, so as
not to bear against the sides; then lay down two ribs of tough wood,
fitted to bear equally across the planking, on each side, as rs, r1 s1,
and screw each end of them down to the outer planks only.

"Wooden cleats can be fixed on each board at t t, each to receive the
butts of two guns, while their barrels lie in hollows formed in the
cushions of the seat opposite them, so that the rower can put down his
paddles and take up his gun instantly; steps for a mast can be also
contrived at the same points. The woodwork is to be also well painted; it
can be taken out with ease, as it is nowhere connected with the tin of
the boat. Care should be taken that no projections in this woodwork, such
as screw-heads, etc., should chafe the tin, and that it should be always
kept well painted.

"The boat, of which this is a description, drew 2 1/2 inches water with
one person in, with two guns and ammunition, etc.; it was furnished with
two short paddles, which were tied by a short length of string to the
sides, so as to be dropped without loss of time on taking up the gun to
fire; the boat turned with the greatest ease, by one backing and pulling
stroke of the two paddles, and was very stiff in the water.

"Iron rowlocks were fitted to it, on the outside at b, e, fig. I. (I do
not give the diagram by which the author illustrated his description; the
rowlocks were applied to the sides of the boat, and each rowlock was
secured to the side by three bolts.) The two upper bolts had claw-heads
to seize the iron-rod gunwale on the inside, and a piece of wood was
fitted on the inside, through which the three bolts passed, to give
substance for their hold, their nuts were on the outside. With these
rowlocks two oars of 7 feet long were used. The breadth between the horns
should be only just enough to admit the oars.

"This boat could be carried on the shoulders of two persons, when
suspended on a pole passed through the end rings, for a distance of
twelve or fifteen miles daily, with guns and ammunition stowed in it. It
could be fired from, standing, without risk, and be poled over marshy
ground barely covered with water, or dragged with ease by the person
seated in it, through high reeds, by grasping a handful on each side and
hauling on them. A rudder was unnecessary. It was in use for more than
three years, and with due care in getting in and out, on a rough shore,
and by keeping it well painted and pitched, it never leaked or became
impaired in any way."

Boats.--Of Wood.--English-made boats have been carried by explorers for
great distances on wheels, but seldom seem to have done much useful
service. They would travel easiest if slung and made fast in a strong
wooden crate or framework, to be fixed on the body of the carriage. A
white covering is necessary for a wooden boat, on account of the sun:
both boat and covering should be frequently examined. Mr. Richardson and
his party took a boat, divided in four quarters, on camel-back across the
Sahara, all the way from the Mediterranean to Lake Tchad. A portable
framework of metal tubes, to be covered with india-rubber sheeting on
arrival, was suggested to me by a very competent authority, the late Mr.
M'Gregor Laird.

Copper boats have been much recommended, because an accidental dent,
however severe it may be, can be beaten back again without doing injury
to the metal. One of the boats in Mr. Lynch's expedition down the Jordan
was made of copper.

Corrugated Iron makes excellent boats for travellers; they are stamped by
machinery: Burton took one of them to Zanzibar. They were widely
advertised some ten years ago, but they never came into general use, and
I do not know where they can now be procured.

Canoes.--The earlier exploits of the 'Rob Roy' canoe justly attracted
much attention, and numerous canoe voyages have subsequently been made.
The Canoe Club is now a considerable institution, many of whose members
make yearly improvements in the designs of their crafts. Although canoes
are delicately built and apparently fragile, experience has amply proved
that they can stand an extraordinary amount of hard usage in the hands of
careful travellers. As a general rule, it is by no means the heaviest and
most solid things that endure the best. If a lightly-made apparatus can
be secured from the risk of heavy things falling upon it, it will outlast
a heavy apparatus that shakes to pieces under the jar of its own weight.

A hole cut in the square sail enables the voyager to see ahead.

To carry on Horseback.--Mr. Macgregor, when in Syria, took two strong
poles, each 16 feet long, and about 3 inches thick at the larger end.
These were placed on the ground 2 feet apart, and across them, at 3 feet
from each end, he lashed two stout staves, about 4 feet long. Then a
"leading" horse was selected, that is, one used to lead caravans, and on
his back a large bag of straw was well girthed and flattened down. The
frame was firmly tied on this, and the canoe, wrapped in carpets, was
placed on the frame. This simple method was used for three months over
sand and snow, rock and jungle, mud and marsh--anywhere indeed that a
horse could go. The frame was elevated in front, so as to allow the
horse's head some room under the boat's keel. Two girth-straps kept the
canoe firmly in position above, and carpets were used as cushions under
its bilge. A boy led the horse, and a strong man was told off to hold
fast to the canoe in every difficulty. It will be seen, that in the event
of a fall, the corners of the framework would receive the shock, not the
canoe.

Boating Gear.--Anchors may be made of wood weighted with stones. Fig. 1
shows the anchor used by Brazilian fishermen with their rude boat or
sailing-raft already described. Fig. 2 shows another sort of anchor that
is in common use in Norway.

Mast.--Where there is difficulty in "stepping" a mast, use a bar across
the thwarts and two poles, one lashed at either end of it, and coming
together to a point above. This triangle takes the place of shrouds fore
and aft. It is a very convenient rig for a boat with an outrigger: the
Sooloo pirates use it.

[Fig. 2--sketch of anchor].

Outrigger Irons.--Mr. Gilby informs me that he has travelled with a pair
of light sculls and outrigger irons, which he was able to adapt to many
kinds of rude boats. He found them of much service in Egypt.

Keels are troublesome to make: lee-boards are effective substitutes, and
are easily added to a rude boat or punt when it is desired to rig her as
a sailing-craft.


Rudder.--A rude oar makes the most powerful, though not the most
convenient rudder. In the lakes of North Italy, where the winds are
steady, the heavy boats have a bar upon which the tiller of the rudder
rests: this bar is full of small notches; and the bottom of the tiller,
at the place where it rests on the bar, is furnished with a blunt
knife-edge; the tiller is not stiffly joined to the rudder, but admits of
a little play up and down. When the boatman finds that the boat steers
steadily, he simply drops the tiller, which forthwith falls into the
notch below it, where it is held tight until the steersman cares to take
the tiller into his hand again.

Buoys.--An excellent buoy to mark out a passage is simply a small pole
anchored by a rope at the end. It is very readily seen, and exposes so
little surface to the wind and water, that it is not easily washed away.
A pole of the thickness of a walking-stick is much used in Sweden. Such a
buoy costs only a rope, a stick, and a stone. A tuft of the
small-branches may be left on the top of the pole.

Log.--For a log use a conical canvas bag thus--

[Sketch of bag in two positions].

When the peg is drawn out by the usual jerk, the bag no longer presents
its mouth to the water, but is easily drawn in by the line attached to
its point.

Boat Building.--Caulking.--Almost anything that is fibrous does for
caulking the seams of a boat. The inner bark of trees is one of the
readiest materials.

Securing Planks.--In default of nails, it is possible to drill or to
burn holes in the planks and to sew them together with strips of hide,
woodbine, or string made from the inner bark of fibrous trees. Holes may
be drilled on precisely the same principle as that which I have described
in making fire by friction.

Lengthening Boats.--If you have an ordinary boat, and wish to make it of
greater burden, saw it in half and lengthen it. Comparatively coarse
carpentering is good enough for this purpose.

Boat Management.--Hauling boats on Shore.--To haul up a boat on a
barren shore, with but a few hands, lay out the anchor ahead of her to
make fast your purchase to; or back the body of a wagon underneath the
boat as she floats, and so draw her out upon wheels. A make-shift
framework, on small solid wheels, has been used and recommended.

Towing.--A good way of fastening a tow-rope to a boat that has no mast
is shown in the diagram, which, however, is very coarsely drawn. A curved
pole is lashed alongside one of the knees of the boat, and the tow-rope,
passing with a turn or two round its end, is carried on to the stern of
the boat. By taking a few turns, more or less, with the rope round the
stick, the line of action of the tow-rope on the boat's axis may be
properly adjusted. When all is right the boat ought to steer herself.

[Sketch of boat being towed].

When Caught by a Gale recollect that a boat will lie-to and live through
almost any weather, if you can make a bundle of a few spare spars, oars,
etc., and secure them to the boat's head, so as to float in front of and
across the bow. They will act very sensibly as a breakwater, and will
always keep the boat's head towards the wind. Kroomen rig out three oars
in a triangle, lash the boat's sail to it, throw overboard, after making
fast, and pay out as much line as they can muster. By making a canvas
half-deck to an open boat, you much increase its safety in broken water;
and if it be made to lace down the centre, it can be rolled up on the
gunwale, and be out of the way in fine weather.

In Floating down a Stream when the wind blows right against you (and on
rivers the wind nearly always blows right up or right down), a plan
generally employed is to cut large branches, to make them fast to the
front of the boat, weight them that they may sink low in the water, and
throw them overboard. The force of the stream acting on these branches
will more than counterbalance that of the wind upon the boat. For want of
branches, a kind of water-sail is sometimes made of canvas.

Steering in the Dark.--In dark nights, when on a river running through
pine forests, the mid stream canbe kept by occasionally striking the
water sharply with the blade of the oar, and listening to the echoes.
They should reach the ear simultaneously, or nearly so, from either bank.
On the same principle, vessels have been steered out of danger when
caught by a dense fog close to a rocky coast.

Awning.--The best is a wagon-roof awning, made simply of a couple of
parallel poles, into which the ends of the bent ribs of the roof are set,
without any other cross-pieces. This roof should be of two feet larger
span than the width of the boat, and should rest upon prolongations of
the thwarts, or else upon crooked knees of wood. One arm of each of the
knees is upright, and is made fast to the inside of the boat, while the
other is horizontal and projects outside it: it is on these horizontal
and projecting arms that the roof rests, and to which it is lashed. Such
an awning is airy, roomy, and does not interfere with rowing if the
rowlocks are fixed to the poles. It also makes an excellent cabin for
sleeping in at night.

Sail Tent.--A boat's sail is turned into a tent by erecting a
gable-shaped framework: the mast or other spar being the ridge-pole, and
a pair of crossed oars lashed together supporting it at either end; and
the whole is made stable by a couple of ropes and pegs. Then the sail is
thrown across the ridge-pole (not over the crossed loops of the oars, for
they would fret it), and is pegged out below. The natural fall of the
canvas bends to close the two ends, as with curtains.

[Sketch of tent].

Tree-snakes.--Where these abound, travellers on rivers with overhanging
branches should beware of keeping too near inshore, lest the rigging of
the boat should brush down the snakes.



FORDS AND BRIDGES.


Fords.--In fording a swift stream, carry heavy stones in your hand, for
you require weight to resist the force of the current: indeed, the deeper
you wade, the more weight you require; though you have so much the less
at command, on account of the water buoying you up.

Rivers cannot be forded if their depth exceeds 3 feet for men or 4 feet
for horses. Fords are easily discovered by typing a sounding-pole to the
stern of a boat rowing down the middle of the stream, and searching those
places where the pole touches the bottom. When no boat is to be had,
fords should be tried for where the river is broad rather than where it
is narrow, and especially at those places where there are bends in its
course. In these the line of shallow water does not run straight across,
but follows the direction of a line connecting a promontory on one side
to the nearest promontory on the other, as in the drawing; that is to
say, from A to B, or from B to C, and not right across from B to b, from
A to a, or from C to c. Along hollow curves, asa, b, c, the stream runs
deep, and usually beneath overhanging banks; whilst in front of
promontories, as at A, B, and C, the water is invariably shoal, unless it
be a jutting rock that makes the promontory. Therefore, by entering the
stream at one promontory, with the intention of leaving it at another,
you ensure that at all events the beginning and end of your course shall
be in shallow water, which you cannot do by attempting any other line of
passage.

[Sketch of river as described].

To Cross Boggy and Uncertain Ground.--Swamps.--When you wish to take a
wagon across a deep, miry, and reedy swamp, outspan and leg the cattle
feed. Then cut faggots of reeds and strew them thickly over the line of
intended passage. When plenty are laid down, drive the cattle backwards
and forwards, and they will trample them in. Repeat the process two or
three times, till the causeway is firm enough to bear the weight of the
wagon. Or, in default of reeds, cut long poles and several short
cross-bars, say of two fee long; join these as best you can, so as to
make a couple of ladder-shaped frames. Place these across the mud, one
under the intended track of each wheel. Faggots strewn between each round
of the ladder will make the causeway more sound. A succession of logs,
laid crosswise with faggots between them, will also do, but not so well.

Passing from Hand to Hand.--When many things have to be conveyed across
a piece of abominably bad road--as over sand-dunes, heavy shingle, mud
of two feet deep, a morass, a jagged mountain tract, or over
stepping-stones in the bed of a rushing torrent--it is a great waste of
labour to make laden men travel to and fro with loads on their backs. It
is a severe exertion to walk at all under these circumstances, letting
along the labour of also carrying a burden. The men should be stationed
in a line, each at a distance of six or seven feet from his neighbour,
and should pass the things from hand to hand, as they stand.

Plank Roads.--"Miry, boggy lines of road, along which people had been
seen for months crawling like flies across a plate of treacle, are
suddenly, and I may almost say magically, converted into a road as hard
and good as Regent Street by the following simple process, which is
usually adopted as soon as the feeble funds of the young colony can
purchase the blessing. A small gang of men, with spades and rammers,
quickly level one end of the earth road. As fast as they proceed, four or
five rows of strong beams or sleepers, which have been brought in the
light wagons of the country, are laid down longitudinally, four or five
feet asunder; and no sooner are they in position than from other wagons
stout planks, touching each other, are transversely laid upon them. From
a third series of wagons, a thin layer of sand or grit is thrown upon the
planks, which instantly assume the appearance of a more level McAdam road
than in practice can ever be obtained. Upon this new-born road the wagons
carrying the sleepers, planks, and sand, convey, with perfect ease, these
three descriptions of materials for its continuance. The work advances
literally about as fast as an old gouty gentleman can walk; and as soon
as it is completed, there can scarcely exist a more striking contrast
than between the two tenses of what it was and what it is. This 'plank
road,' as it is termed in America, usually lasts from eight to twelve
years; and as it is found quite unnecessary to spike the planks to the
sleepers, the arrangement admits of easy repair, which, however, is but
seldom required." (Sir Francis Head, in Times, Jan. 25.)

Snow.--Sir R. Dalyell tells me that it is the practice of muleteers in
the neighbourhood of Erzeroum, when their animals lose their way and
flounder in the deep snow, to spread a horse-cloth or other thick rug
from off their packs upon the snow in front of them. The animals step
upon it and extricate themselves easily. I have practised walking across
deep snow-drifts on this principle, with perfect success.

Weak Ice.--Water that is slightly frozen is made to bear a heavy wagon,
by cutting reeds, strewing them thickly on the ice, and pouring water
upon them; when the whole is frozen into a firm mass the process must be
repeated.

Bridges.--Flying Bridges are well known: a long cord or chain of poles
is made fast to a rock or an anchor in the middle of a river. The other
end is attached to the ferry-boat which being so slewed as to receive the
force of the current obliquely, traverses the river from side to side.

Bridges of Felled Trees.--If you are at the side of a narrow but deep
and rapid river, on the banks of which trees grow long enough to reach
across, one or more may be felled, confining the trunk to its own bank,
and letting the current force the head round to the opposite side; but if
"the river be too wide to be spanned by one tree--and if two or three
men can in any manner be got across--let a large tree be felled into the
water on each side, and placed close to the banks opposite to each other,
with their heads lying up-streamwards. Fasten a rope to the head of each
tree, confine the trunks, shove the head off to receive the force of the
current, and ease off the ropes, so that the branches may meet in the
middle of the river at an angle pointing upwards. The branches of the
trees will be jammed together by the force of the current, and so be
sufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication, especially when
a few of the upper branches have been cleared away. If insufficient,
towards the middle of the river, to bear the weight of men crossing, a
few stakes with the forks left near their heads, may be thrust down
through the branches of the trees to support them." (Sir H. Douglas.)



CLOTHING.


General Remarks.--There are such infinite varieties of dress, that I
shall only attempt a few general remarks and give a single costume, that
a traveller of great experience had used to his complete satisfaction.
The military authorities of different nations have long made it their
study to combine in the best manner the requirements of handsome effect,
of cheapness, and of serviceability in all climates, but I fear their
results will not greatly help the traveller, who looks more to
serviceability than to anything else. Of late years, even Garibaldi with
his red-shirted volunteers, and Alpine men with their simple outfit, have
approached more nearly to a traveller's ideal.

Materials for Clothes.--Flannel.--The importance of flannel next the
skin can hardly be overrated: it is now a matter of statistics; for,
during the progress of expeditions, notes have been made of the number of
names of those in them who had provided themselves with flannel, and of
those who had not. The list of sick and dead always included names from
the latter list in a very great proportion.

Cotton is preferable to flannel for a sedentary life, in hot damp
countries, or where flannel irritates the skin. Persons who are resident
in the tropics, and dress in civilised costume, mostly wear cotton
shirts.

Linen by universal consent is a dangerous dress wherever there is a
chance of much perspiration, for it strikes cold upon the skin when it is
wet. The terror of Swiss guides of the old school at a coup d'air on the
mountain top, and of Italians at the chill of sundown, is largely due to
their wearing linen shirts. Those who are dressed in flannel are far less
sensitive to these influences.

Leather is the only safeguard against the stronger kinds of thorns. In
pastoral and in hunting countries it is always easy to procure skins of a
tough quality that have been neatly dressed by hand. Also it will be easy
to find persons capable of sewing them together very neatly, after you
have cut them out to the pattern of your old clothes.

Bark Cloth is used in several parts of the work. It is simply a piece of
some kind of peculiarly fibrous bark; in Unyoro, Sir S. Baker says, the
natives use the bark of a species of fig-tree. They soak it in water and
then beat it with a mallet, to get rid of all the harder parts;--much as
hemp is prepared. "In appearance it much resembles corduroy, and is the
colour of tanned leather: the finer qualities are peculiarly soft to the
touch, as though of woven cotton."

Effect of colour on warmth of clothing.--Dark colours become hotter than
light colours in the sunshine, but they are not hotter under any other
circumstances. Consequently a person who aims at equable temperature,
should wear light colours. Light colours are far the best for sporting
purposes, as they are usually much less conspicuous than black or
rifle-green. Almost all wild beasts are tawny or fawn-coloured, or tabby,
or of some nondescript hue and pattern: if an animal were born with a
more decided colour, he would soon perish for want of ability to conceal
himself.

Warmth of different Materials.--"The indefatigable Rumford made an
elaborate series of experiments on the conductivity of the substances
used in clothing. His method was this:--A mercurial thermometer was
suspended in the axis of a cylindrical glass tube ending with a globe, in
such a manner that the centre of the bulb of the thermometer occupied the
centre of the globe; the space between the internal surface of the globe
and the bulb was filled with the substance whose conductive power was to
be determined; the instrument was then heated in boiling water, and
afterwards, being plunged into a freezing mixture of pounded ice and
salt, the times of cooling down 136 degrees Fahr. were noted. They are
recorded in the following table:--

Surrounded with --                            Seconds.
Twisted silk..................................  917
Fine lint..................................... 1032
Cotton wool.................................. 1046
Sheep's wool.................................. 1118
Taffety....................................... 1169
Raw silk...................................... 1264
Beaver's fur.................................. 1296
Eider down.................................... 1305
Hare's fur.................................... 1312
Wood ashes....................................  927
Charcoal......................................  937
Lamp-black.................................... 1117

Among the substances here examined, hare's fur offered the greatest
impediment to the transmission of the heat. The transmission of heat is
powerfully influenced by the mechanical state of the body through which
it passes. The raw and twisted silk of Rumford's table illustrate this"
(Prof. Tyndall on Heat.)

Waterproof Cloth.--Cloth is made partly waterproof by rubbing soap-suds
into it (on the wrong side), and working them well in: and when dry,
doing the same with a solution of alum; the soap is by this means
decomposed, and the oily part of it distributed among the fibres of the
cloth. (See "Tarpaulins.")

Incombustible Stuffs.--I extract the following paragraph from a
newspaper. Persons who make much use of musquito curtains, will be glad
to read it. "'The Répertoire de Chimie Pure et Appliquee' publishes the
following remarks by the celebrated chemists, MM. D¦bereiner and Oesner,
on the various methods for rendering stuffs incombustible, or at least
less inflammable than they naturally are. The substances employed for
this purpose are borax, alum, soluble glass, and phosphate of ammonia.
For wood and common stuffs, any one of these salts will do; but fine and
light tissues, which are just those most liable to catching fire, cannot
be treated in the same way. Borax renders fine textile fabrics stiff; it
causes dust, and will swell out under the smoothing-iron; so does alum,
beside weakening the fibres of the stuff, so as to make it tear easily.
Soluble glass both stiffens and weakens the stuff, depriving it both of
elasticity and tenacity. Phosphate of ammonia alone has none of these
inconveniences. It may be mixed with a certain quantity of sal-ammoniac,
and then introduced into the starch prepared for stiffening the linen; or
else it may be dissolved in 20 parts of water, in weight, to one of
phosphate, and the stuff steeped into the solution, then allowed to dry,
and ironed as usual.

Phosphate of ammonia is cheap enough to allow of its introduction into
common use, so that it may be employed at each wash. Phosphate of ammonia
is obtained by saturating the biphosphate of lime with liquid ammonia.

Sewing Materials.--An outfit of sewing materials consists of needles and
thread; scissors; tailor's thimble; wax; canvas needles, including the
smaller sizes which are identical with glove needles and are used for
sewing leather; twine; a palm; awls for cobbling, both straight and
curved; cobbler's wax; and, possibly, bristles. The needles and awls in
use are conveniently carried in some kind of metal tube, with wads of
cork at either end, to preserve their points. (See also the chapter on
"Thread, for stitches," etc.)

Articles of Dress.--Hats and Caps.--There is no perfect head-dress; but
I notice that old travellers in both hot and temperate countries have
generally adopted a scanty "wide-awake." Mr. Oswell, the South African
sportsman and traveller, used for years, and strongly recommended to me,
a brimless hat of fine Panama grass, which he had sewn as a lining to an
ordinary wide-awake. I regret I have had no opportunity of trying this
combination, but can easily believe that the touch of the cool, smooth
grass, to the wet brow, would be more agreeable than that of any other
material. I need hardly mention Pith hats (to be bought under the Opera
Colonnade, Pall Mall), Indian topees, and English hunting-caps, as having
severally many merits. A muslin turban twisted into a rope and rolled
round the hat is a common plan to keep the sun from the head and spine:
it can also be used as a rope on an emergency.

Coat.--In nine cases out of ten, a strong but not too thick tweed coat
is the best for rough work. In a very thorny country, a leather coat is
almost essential. A blouse, cut short so as to clear the saddle, is neat,
cool, and easy, whether as a riding or walking costume. Generally
speaking, the traveller will chiefly spend his life in his shirt-sleeves,
and will only use his coat when he wants extra warmth.

To carry a Coat.--There are two ways. The first is to fold it small and
strap it to the belt. If the coat be a light one it can be carried very
neatly and comfortably in this way, lying in the small of the back. The
second is the contrivance of a friend of mine, an eminent scholar and
divine, who always employs it in his vacation rambles. It is to pass an
ordinary strap, once round the middle of the coat and a second time round
both the coat and the left arm just above the elbow, and then to buckle
it. The coat hangs very comfortably in its place and does not hamper the
movements of the left arm. It requires no further care, except that after
a few minutes it will generally be found advisable to buckle the strap
one hole tighter. A coat carried in this way will be found to attract no
attention from passers by.

Waistcoats are more convenient for their pockets than for their warmth.
When travelling in countries where papers have to be carried, an inside
pocket between the lining and the waistcoat, with a button to close it,
is extremely useful. Letters of credit and paper money can be carried in
it more safely than in any other pocket.

Trousers.--If you are likely to have much riding, take extra leather or
moleskin trousers, or tweed covered down the inside of the legs with
leather, such as cavalry soldiers generally wear. Leather is a better
protection than moleskin against thorns; but not so serviceable against
wet: it will far outlast moleskin. There should be no hem to the legs of
trousers, as it retains the wet.

Watch-pocket.--Have it made of macintosh, to save the watch from
perspiration. The astronomer-royal of Cape Town, Sir T. Maclear, who had
considerable experience of the bush when measuring an arc of the
meridian, justly remarked to me on the advantage of frequently turning
the watch-pocket inside out, to get rid of the fluff and dust that
collects in it and is otherwise sure to enter the watch-case.

Socks.--The hotter the ground on which you have to walk, the thicker
should be your socks. These should be of woollen, wherever you expect to
have much walking; and plenty of them will be required.

Substitute for Socks.--For want of socks, pieces of linen may be used,
and, when these are properly put on they are said to be even better than
socks. They should be a foot square, be made of soft worn linen, be
washed once a-day, and be smeared with tallow. They can be put on so
dexterously as to stand several hours' marching without making a single
wrinkle, and are much used by soldiers in Germany. To put them on, the
naked foot is placed crosswise; the corners on the right and on the left
are then folded over, then the corner which lies in front of the toes.
Now the art consists in so drawing up these ends, that the foot can be
placed in the shoe or boot without any wrinkles appearing in the bandage.
One wrinkle is sure to make a blister, and therefore persons who have to
use them should practise frequently how to put them on. Socks similar to
these, but made of thick blanket, and called "Blanket Wrappers," are in
use at Hudson's Bay instead of shoes.

Shirt-sleeves.--When you have occasion to tuck up your shirt-sleeves,
recollect that the way of doing so is, not to begin by turning the cuffs
inside out, but outside in--the sleeves must be rolled up inwards,
towards the arm, and not the reverse way. In the one case, the sleeves
will remain tucked up for hours without being touched; in the other, they
become loose every five minutes.

Gloves, Mits, and Muffs.--In cold dry weather a pair of old soft kid
gloves, with large woollen gloves drawn over them, is the warmest
combination. Mits and muffetees merely require mention. To keep the hands
warm in very severe weather, a small fur muff may be slung from the neck,
in which the hands may rest till wanted.

Braces.--Do not forget to take them, unless you have had abundant
experience of belts; for belts do not suit every shape, neither are
English trousers cut with the intention of being worn with them. But
trousers made abroad, are shaped at the waist, especially for the purpose
of being worn without braces; if desired. If you use braces, take two
pairs, for when they are drenched with perspiration, they dry slowly.
Some people do not care to use a belt, even with trousers of an ordinary
cut, but find that a tape run through a hem along the upper edge of the
trousers acts sufficiently well. Capt. Speke told me he always used this
plan.

Boots.--Boots of tanned leather such as civilised people wear, are
incomparably better for hard usage, especially in wet countries, than
those of hand-dressed skins. If travelling in a hot, dry country, grease
plentifully both your shoes and all other leather. "La graisse est la
conservation du cuir," as I recollect a Chamouni guide enunciating with
profound emphasis. The soles of plaited cord used in parts of the
Pyrenees, are durable and excellent for clambering over smooth rock. They
have a far better hold upon it than any other sole of which I have
knowledge. Sandals are better than nothing at all. So are cloths wound
round the feet and ankles and tied there: the peasants of the remarkable
hilly place where I am writing these lines, namely Amalfi, use them much.
They are an untidy chaussure, but never seem to require to be tied
afresh. In the old days of Rome this sort of foot-gear was common.
Haybands wound round the feet are a common makeshift by soldiers who are
cut off from their supplies. It takes some months to harden the feet
sufficiently to be able to walk without shoes at all. Slippers are great
luxuries to foot-sore men. They should of course be of soft material, but
the soles should not be too thin or they will be too cold for comfort in
camp life.

Leggings.--Macintosh leggings to go over the trousers are a great
comfort in heavy showers, especially when riding.

Gaiters.--If the country be full of briars and thorns, the insteps
suffer cruelly when riding through bushes. It is easy to make gaiters
either with buttons or buckles. A strip of wood is wanted, either behind
or else on each side of them, to keep them from slipping down to the
ankle.

Dressing Gown.--Persons who travel, even with the smallest quantity of
luggage, would do wisely to take a thick dressing-gown. It is a relief to
put it on in the evening, and is a warm extra dress for sleeping in. It
is eminently useful, comfortable and durable.

Poncho.--A poncho is useful, for it is a sheet as well as a cloak; being
simply a blanket with a slit in the middle to admit the wearer's head. A
sheet of strong calico, saturated with oil, makes a waterproof poncho.

Complete Bush-costume.--Mr. Gordon Cumming describes his bush-costume as
follows:--"My own personal appointments consisted of a wide-awake hat,
secured under my chin by 'rheimpys' or strips of dressed skin, a coarse
linen shirt, sometimes a kilt, and sometimes a pair of buckskin
knee-breeches, and a pair of 'veltschoens,' or home-made shoes. I
entirely discarded coat, waistcoat, and neckcloth; and I always hunted
with my arms bare; my heels were armed with a pair of powerful
persuaders, and from my left wrist depended, by a double rheimpy (thong),
an equally persuasive sea-cow jambok (whip of solid leather). Around my
waist I wore two leathern belts or girdles. The smaller did the duty of
suspender, and from it on my left side depended a plaited rheimpy, eight
inches in length, forming a loop, in which dangled my powerful
loading-rod, formed of a solid piece of horn of the rhinoceros. The
larger girdle was my shooting-belt; this was a broad leather belt, on
which were fastened four separate compartments, made of otterskin, with
flaps to button over, of the same material. The first of these held my
percussion-caps; the second, a large powder-flask; the third and fourth,
which had divisions in them, contained balls and patches, two sharp
clasp-knives, a compass, flint and steel. In this belt I also carried a
loading-mallet, formed from the horn of the rhinoceros; this and the
powder-flask were each secured to the belt by long rheimpys, to prevent
my losing them. Last, but not least, in my right hand I usually carried
my double-barrelled two-grooved rifle, which was my favourite weapon.
This, however, I subsequently made up my mind was not the tool for a
mounted man, especially when quick loading is required."

Wet Clothes, to dry.--Fire for drying Clothes.--To dry clothes it is a
very convenient plan to make a dome-shaped framework of twigs over a
smouldering fire; by bending each twig or wand into a half-circle, and
planting both ends of it in the ground, one on each side of the fire. The
wet clothes are laid on this framework, and receive the full benefit of
the heat. Their steam passes readily upwards.

[Two sketches of drying frame].

To keep Clothes from the wet.--Mr. Parkyns says, "I may as well tell,
also, how we managed to keep our clothes dry when travelling in the rain:
this was rather an important consideration, seeing that each man's
wardrobe consisted of what he carried on his back. Our method was at once
effective and simple: if halting, we took off our clothes and sat on
them; if riding, they were placed under the leathern shabraque of the
mule's saddle, or under any article of similar material, bed or bag, that
lay on the camel's pack. A good shower-bath did none of us any harm; and
as soon as the rain was over, and the moisture on our skins had
evaporated, we had our garments as warm, dry, and comfortable as if they
had been before a fire. In populous districts, we kept on our drawers, or
supplied their place with a piece of rag, or a skin; and then, when the
rain was over, we wrapped ourselves up in our 'quarry,' and taking off
the wetted articles, hung them over the animal's cruppers to dry."
Another traveller writes:--

"The only means we had of preserving our sole suit of clothes dry from
the drenching showers of rain, was by taking them off and stuffing them
into the hollow of a tree, which in the darkness of the night we could do
with propriety."

Mr. Palliser's boatmen at Chagre took each a small piece of cloth, under
which they laid their clothes every time that they stripped in
expectation of a coming storm.

Dipping clothes wetted with rain, in Sea-water.--Captain Bligh, who was
turned adrift in an open boat after the mutiny of the 'Bounty,' writes
thus about his experience:--"With respect to the preservation of our
health, during a course of 16 days of heavy and almost continual rain, I
would recommend to every one in a similar situation the method we
practised, which is to dip their clothes in the salt water and wring them
out as often as they become filled with rain: it was the only resource we
had, and I believe was of the greatest service to us, for it felt more
like a change of dry clothes than could well be imagined. We had occasion
to do this so often, that at length our clothes were wrung to pieces; for
except the few days we passed on the coast of New Holland, we were
continually wet, either with rain or sea."

Washing Clothes.--Substitute for Soap.--The lye of ashes and the gall
of animals are the readiest substitutes for soap. The sailor's recipe for
washing clothes is well known, but it is too dirty to describe. Bran, and
the meal of many seeds, is good for scouring: also some earths, like
fuller's-earth. Many countries possess plants that will make a lather
with water. Dr. Rae says that in a very cold climate, when fire, water,
and the means of drying are scarce, it will be found that rubbing
andbeating in snow cleanses all clothing remarkably well, particularly
woollens. When preparing for a regular day's washing, it is a good plan