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those of a few years back, undoubtedly shared the ponderousness of all
Dutch workmanship. Weight is required only when crashing through a bushy
country, where a wagon must break down all before it: in every other case
it is objectionable. It is a saving of labour to have one large wagon,
rather than two small ones, because a driver and a leader are thereby
spared. But if a very light wagon has to be taken, I should greatly
prefer its being made on the Swiss and German fashion, with a shifting
perch as in the figure
[Drawing of fastening].
These are the simplest of affairs, and will split up into two carts--the
pole and the fore-wheels forming one, and the perch and the hind-wheels
another: now, should a great loss occur among the traveller's cattle, or
should he break a wheel, or even strain an axle-tree, in a timberless
country, it may be very convenient to him to abandon part of his stores,
and to build up a cart for carrying on the remainder. Lady Vavasour
describes one of these wagons in the following graphic manner:--"The
perch is moveable, and they can make it any length they please; it is of
so simple a construction that every farmer can repair his own, and make
anything of it. If he has a perch, a pole, and four wheels, that is
enough; with a little ingenuity, he makes it carry stones, hay, earth, or
anything he wants, by putting a plank at each side. When he wants a
carriage for pleasure, he fits it up for that purpose; his moveable perch
allows him to make it anything. I counted seventeen grown persons sitting
side by side, looking most happy, in one of them, drawn only by a pair of
small horses, and in this hilly country."
Drays.--Two-wheeled drays, and not wagons, are used very generally in
Australia. A long bar is crossed by a short one near one of its
ends,--this latter forms the axletree; the body of the dray is built
where the two cross; and the cattle are yoked or harnessed to the long
end of the bar, which acts as a pole.
Tarring Wheels.--Tar is absolutely essential in a hot country, to mix
with the grease that is used for the wagon-wheels. Grease, alone, melts
and runs away like water: the object of the tar is to give consistency to
the grease; a very small proportion of tar suffices, but without any at
all, a wagon is soon brought to a standstill. It is, therefore, most
essential to explorers to have a sufficient quantity in reserve. Tar is
also of very great use in hot dry countries for daubing over the wheels,
and the woodwork generally, of wagons. During extreme heat, when the wood
is ready to crack, all the paint should be scraped off it, and the tar
applied plentifully. It will soak in deeply, and preserve the wood in
excellent condition, both during the drought and the ensuing wet season.
(See "Tar, to make.") It is not necessary to take off the wheels in order
to grease the axles. It is sufficient to bore an auger-hole right through
the substance of the nave, between the feet of two of the spokes, and to
keep a plug in the hole. Then, when you want to tar a wheel, turn it till
the hole is uppermost, take the plug out, and pour in the tar.
Breaks and Drags.--Breaks.--Every cart and wagon in Switzerland, and,
indeed, in most parts of the Continent, has a break attached to it: the
simplest kind of break is shown in fig. 2, which represents a cart tilted
upwards. Fig 1 shows the break itself; fig. 2 explains how it is fitted
on to the cart. [Fig 1.] It will easily be understood how, by tightening
the free end of the cord, the break is pressed against the wheels. The
bent piece of iron shown in fig. 2, by which the bar of the break is kept
in its place, may be replaced by a piece of wood, or even by a thong of
leather. Every explorer's wagon should be furnished with a break.
[Fig 2].
A simple break, used in Italy, in some parts of England and probably
elsewhere, is shown in fig. 3. A rail is lashed to the body of the cart,
both before and behind the wheel, and is made to press against the wheel.
Either both lashings can be tightened at the same time, as at A, A; or
only one of them, as at B. When the lashings are loose, the rail rests
partly on the nave of the wheel and does not sensibly interfere with its
movement.
[Fig. 3].
Other Means of Checking a Wagon on a Hill-side.--In going down a steep
hill a middling-sized tree may be felled, and its root tied to the hind
axletree, while its branchy top sweeps along the ground, as is seen in
the lowermost wagon in the sketch. [Sketch of horses and wagons on hill]
In the south-west of France the leaders of the team are unharnessed and
taken to the back of the wagon, to which the collar of the front horse is
made fast; in this way they can aid the horses in the shafts. The same
plan may be seen practised hourly in the Strand in London, whence heavy
wagons are taken down a very steep and narrow lane to the Adelphi.
In descending short steep pitches, unharness the cattle, and "fasten a
rope round the axle of the wagon; then passing the other end round a tree
or rock as a check, you may let her slide, which she will do without any
further trouble on your part." (F. Marryat.)
In some places the hind wheels are taken off, and sledge runners are
fitted to the hind axletree. This is an excellent plan; it has the
further advantage that the wagon settles down into a more horizontal
position than before. I have seen timber carried on a wagon down a steep
hill by separating the front wheels from the hind ones, lashing a trail
(see "Travail" below) or two short poles to the fore axletree, and
resting one end of the timber on the hind axletree, and the other end on
the trail.
Shoe the wheel on the side furthest from the precipice.
If you have to leave a cart or wagon untended for a while, lock the
wheel.
[Sketch of loaded sledge].
Sledges.--When carrying wood or stones, and doing other heavy work, a
traveller should spare his wagon and use a sledge. This is made by
cutting down a forked tree, lopping off its branches, and shaping it a
little with an axe. If necessary, a few bars may be fixed across the fork
so as to make a stage. Great distances may be traversed by one of these
rude affairs, if the country is not very stony. Should it capsize, no
great harm is done; and if it breaks down, or is found to have been badly
made, an hour's labour will suffice to construct another. Sledges are
very useful where there is an abundance of horse or ox power, but no
wagon or packing-gear.
North American Travail.--In a North American Indian horse "travail," the
crossing of the poles (they are the poles of the wigwams) usually rests
on a rough pack-saddle or pad, which a breast-strap keeps from slipping
backwards. In a dog travail the cross of the poles rests on the back of
the neck, and is kept in place by a breast or rather a neck strap; the
poles are wrapped with pieces of buffalo robe where they press against
the dog. Captain Blakiston--a very accurate authority--considers that a
horse will travel 30 miles in the day, dragging on the travail a weight
of about 200 lbs., including a child, whose mother sits on the horse's
back; and that a dog, the size of an average retriever, will draw about
80 lbs. for the same distance. (N.B. The North American plains are
perfectly level.)
[Sketch of horse with "travail"].
Palanquins, carried like sedan-chairs, between two animals--one going
before the other in shafts--are in use in various countries; but I am not
aware that explorers have ever properly tried them. Their advantage would
lie in combining the convenience of a cart with much of the independence
of pack-horses. For whatever is lashed on a pack-saddle must be securely
tied up; it is therefore severely compressed, and cannot be taken out en
route. But with a cart or a palanquin there is no such inconvenience:
things may be quickly thrown into them or taken out; pockets and drawers
may be fitted up; and the palanquin would afford some shelter in rain. I
should think it would be well worth while to try one of these
contrivances. It might be made en route; first accustoming the animals,
when carrying their packs, to walk between long shafts, then, after some
days, taking the load off their saddles, and lashing them on to the
shafts. If all went well, a regular palanquin might be constructed with
legs, to be let down when the animals are off-packed, and on which it
might stand until ready to be again carried onwards. Half-a-dozen
palanquins in file would make a pretty, and, I should think, a manageable
and effective caravan. Asses ought to be able to carry them well; a
couple of asses would probably carry a greater weight than a single
pack-horse, and would give no greater trouble; if so, their hardiness
would be invaluable.
SWIMMING.
General Remarks.--Rate of Swimming. People swim much more slowly than is
commonly supposed. In races between first-rate swimmers, for distances of
300 yards and upwards, the average pace of two miles an hour is barely,
if at all, exceeded.
Learning to Swim.--A good way of teaching a person to swim, is a
modification of that adopted at Eton. The teacher may sit in a punt or on
a rock, with a stout stick of 6 or 10 feet in length, at the end of which
is a cord of 4 feet or so, with loops. The learner puts himself into the
loops; and the teacher plays him, as a fisherman would play a fish, in
water that is well out of his depth: he gives him just enough support to
keep him from drowning. After six or a dozen lessons, many boys require
no support at all, but swim about with the rope dangling slack about
them. When a boy does this, he can be left to shift for himself. The art
of swimming far is acquired, like the art of running far, by a
determination to go on, without resting a moment, until utterly unable to
make a stroke further, and then to stop altogether. Each succeeding day,
the distance travelled is marvellously increased, until the natural limit
of the man's powers is attained. The chilliness consequent on staying
long in water is retarded by rubbing all over the body, before entering
it, about twice as much oil or bear's-grease as a person uses for his
hair.
To support those who cannot Swim.--If a person cannot swim a stroke, he
should be buoyed up with floats under his arms, and lashed quite
securely, to his own satisfaction; then he can be towed across the river
with a string. If he lose courage halfway, it cannot be helped: it will
do him no harm, and his swimming friend is in no danger of being grappled
with and drowned. For very short distances, a usual way is for the man
who cannot swim to hold his friend by the hips. A very little floating
power is enough to buoy a man's head, above still water. (See "African
Swimming Ferry," below.)
Landing through Breakers.--In landing through a heavy surf, wait for a
large wave, and come in on the crest of it; then make every possible
exertion to scramble up to some firm holding-place, whence its indraught,
when it returns, can be resisted. If drawn back, you will be heavily
battered, perhaps maimed, certainly far more exhausted than before, and
not a whit nearer to safety. Avoid receiving a breaker in the attitude of
scrambling away from it on hands and knees: from such a position, the
wave projects a man headforemost with fearful force, and rolls him over
and over in its surge. He ought to turn on his back the instant before
the breaker is upon him; and then all will go well, and he will be helped
on, and not half-killed by it. Men on shore can rescue a man who is being
washed to and fro in the surf, by holding together, very firmly,
hand-in-hand, and forming a line down to the sea: the foremost man
clutches the swimmer as soon as he is washed up to him, and holds him
firmly while the wave is retiring. The force of the indraught is
enormous, and none but strong men can withstand it.
Floats.--If a traveller can swim pretty well, it is a good plan to make a
float when he wishes to cross a river, and to lay his breast upon it,
while his clothes and valuables are enclosed in a huge turban on his
head. In this way, he may cross the broadest streams and float great
distances down a river. He may tie paddles to his hands. His float may
consist of a faggot of rushes, a log of wood, or any one of his empty
water-vessels, whether barrels or bags; for whatever will keep water in,
will also keep it out. The small quantity of air, which might escape
through the sides of a bag, should be restored by blowing afresh into it,
during the voyage. A few yards of intestine blown out and tied here and
there, so as to form so many watertight compartments, makes a capital
swimming belt: it may be wound in a figure of 8 round the neck and under
the armpits. When employing empty bottles, they should be well corked and
made fast under the armpits, or be stuffed within the shirt or jersey,
and a belt tied round the waist below them, to keep them in place.
African Swimming Ferry.--The people of Yariba have a singular mode of
transporting passengers across rivers and streams, when the violence and
rapidity of their currents prevent them from using canoes with safety.
The passenger grasps the float (see fig.), on the top of which his
luggage is lashed; and a perfect equilibrium is preserved, by the
ferry-man placing himself opposite the passenger, and laying hold of both
his arms. They being thus face to face, the owner of the float propels it
by striking with his legs. The natives use as their float two of their
largest calabashes, cutting off their small ends, and joining the
openings face to face, so as to form a large, hollow, watertight vessel.
[Sketch of African swimming ferry].
Makeshift Life-belt.--A moderately effective life-belt may be made of
holland, ticking, canvas, or similar materials, in the following manner,
and might be used with advantage by the crew of a vessel aground some way
from the mainland, who are about to swim for their lives:--Cut out two
complete rings, of 16 inches outer diameter and 8 inches inner diameter;
sew these together along both edges, with as fine a needle as possible
and with double thread: add strong shoulder-straps, so that it shall not,
by any possibility, slip down over the hips; and, lastly, sew into it a
long narrow tube, made out of a strip, a foot long and two inches wide,
of the same material as the belt. At the mouth of this, a bit of wood, an
inch long, with a hole bored down its middle, should be inserted as a
mouthpiece. Through this tube the belt can be re-inflated by the swimmer
while in the water, as often as may be necessary; and, by simply twisting
the tube and tucking its end in the belt, its vent can always be closed.
After a canvas belt is thoroughly drenched, it will hold the air very
fairly: the seams are its weakest parts. For supporting a swimmer in calm
water, a collar is as good as a belt.
Transport on Water.--Parcels.--The swimmer's valuables may as well be put
inside the empty vessel that acts as his float, as in the turban on his
head (see "Floats"). A goat-skin is often filled half full of the things
he wants to carry, and is then blown out and its mouth secured. A very
good life-belt may be bought, which admits of this arrangement: it has a
large opening at one end, which is closed by a brass door that shuts like
the top of an inkstand, and is then quite air-tight.
A small parcel, if tightly wrapped up in many folds, will keep dry for a
long time, though partly immersed in water: the outside of it may be
greased, oiled, or waxed, for additional security. If deeply immersed,
the water is sure to get in.
Swimming with Horses.--In crossing a deep river, with a horse or other
large animal, drive him in: or even lead him along a steep bank, and push
him sideways, suddenly into the water: having fairly started him, jump in
yourself, seize his tail, and let him tow you across. If he turns his
head with the intention of changing his course, splash water in his face
with your right or left hand, as the case may be, holding the tail with
one hand and splashing with the other; and you will, in this way, direct
him just as you like. This is by far the best way of swimming a horse:
all others are objectionable and even dangerous with animals new to the
work,--such as to swim alongside the horse, with one hand on his
shoulder; or, worst of all, to retain your seat on his back. If this last
method be persisted in, at least let the rider take his feet out of the
stirrups, before entering the water.
[Sketch of horse and man crossing river].
To float a Wagon across a River.--It must be well ballasted, or it will
assuredly capsize: the heavy contents should be stowed at the bottom; the
planking lashed to the axletrees, or it will float away from them; great
bundles of reeds and the empty water-vessels should be made fast high
above all, and then the wagon will cross without danger. When it is
fairly under weigh, the oxen will swim it across, pulling in their yokes.
Water Spectacles.--When a man opens his eyes under water, he can see
nothing distinctly; but everything is as much out of focus, as if he
looked, in air, through a pair of powerful spectacles that were utterly
unsuited to him. He cannot distinguish the letters of the largest print
in a newspaper advertisement; he cannot see the spaces between the
outstretched fingers, at arm's length, in clear water; nor at a few
inches' distance in water that is somewhat opaque. I read a short paper
on this subject, at the British Association in 1865, in which I showed
the precise cause of this imperfection of vision and how it might be
remedied. If the front of our eyeballs had been flat, we should have had
the power of seeing under water as clearly as in air; but instead of
being flat, they are very convex, consequently our eye stamps a concave
lens of high power into the water, and it is the seeing through this
concave eyeglass which our eyeball makes for itself, that causes the
indistinctness of our vision. Knowing the curvature of the eyeball, it is
easy to calculate (as I did in the memoir mentioned above) the curvature
of a convex lens of flint-glass that should, when plunged into water,
produce effects of an exactly equal and contrary value, exactly
neutralizing the effects of the concave eyeglass of water, if it were
held immediately in front of the pupil of the eye. I have made several
experiments with a view to obtaining serviceable spectacles, for seeing
under water. The result is as follows:--experience has shown the distance
from the eyeball at which spectacle-glasses can be most conveniently
placed; now at that distance, the joint effect of the concave water-lens
and the convex glass spectacle-lens, is to produce an opera-glass of
exceedingly low magnifying power, that requires a small adjustment for
accurate definition at different distances.
If the spectacle-lens be of flint-glass and doubly convex, each of its
faces should have a curvature of not greater than 6 1/2 tenths of an
inch, nor more than 8 1/2 tenths of an inch in radius: within these
limits, it is practicable to obtain perfectly distinct vision under water
by pressing the spectacles forwards or backwards to a moderate degree.
Lenses of these high magnifying powers are sometimes sold by
spectacle-makers, for persons who have undergone an operation for
cataract. I have tried, but hitherto without much success, to arrange the
fittings by which the lenses are secured so that by a movement of the jaw
or by an elevation of the eyebrows, I could give the necessary adjustment
of the glasses, leaving my hands free for the purpose of swimming. (See
also, under "Fishing;' 'To see Things deep under Water.')
RAFTS AND BOATS.
Rafts.--Rafts of Wood.--Rafts are made of logs of wood, held together by
pairs of cross-bars, one of each pair lying above the raft and the other
below; then, the whole may be made quite firm by a little judicious
notching wherethe logs cross, and a few pegs and lashings. Briers,
woodbines, etc., will do for these. If the logs are large, they should be
separately launched into the river, and towed into their proper places.
Outriggers vastly increase the stability of a raft. The raft-fastening in
common use is shown in f. 1: it is a stout, little wand, bent over the
cross piece, and wedged into holes in the framework.
[Sketch of raft].
[Fig 1 and Fig 2 show fastening arrangements].
The rafts of European rivers are usually built on shore, and launched
into the water: three slides are laid for the purpose, on the sloping
bank of the river; upon these are laid the four poles, secured together
by their ends, which are to form the framework of the raft (fig. 2).
Other poles are put in between, until the whole is complete.
Bamboo rafts.--Where bamboo is plentiful, it is preferable to any other
material for rafts. A few bamboos lashed into the shape of an ordinary
field gate, but with two diagonals, and with handfuls of grass thrown on
to make a platform, is very buoyant and serviceable.
Floating power of various Woods.--The floating power of a raft depends on
the buoyancy of the wood of which it is made. I give, in a Table (p. 90),
a list of the specific gravities of a few well-known woods; and have
annexed to them a column of what may be called their "specific floating
powers."*
[Footnote] *Specific floating power = (1/Spec. Gr.)--1. (Mem., the Table
of these, in previous editions is incorrect.) Burden = weight of raft x
specific floating power. Weight of wood required to support a given burden =
Burden x (Spec. Gr./1-Spec. Gr.); the last column gives the latter
factor.
Hence, to find the actual floating power of a raft, it is simply
necessary to multiply its weight into the specific floating power of the
wood of which it is made.
Thus, a raft of 12 logs of larch, averaging 30 lbs. each, weighs 360
lbs.; this multiplied by .47, is equal to 169 lbs. very nearly, which is
the weight the raft will support without sinking. Poplar is the lightest
on the list.
Specific Specific Factors to be multiplied
Gravities. Floating Powers. into burden to find
weight of raft just
able to support it.
Alder........ .80 .25 4.0
Ash........... .85 .18 5.7
Beech......... .85 .18 5.7
Elm....... .59 to .80 .70 to .25 1.4 to 4.0
Fir...... .47 to .60 1.13 to .66 0.9 to 1.5
Larch..... ... .53 .89 1.1
Oak........... .75 .33 3.0
" heart of.. 1.17 sinks cannot be used
Pine..... .40 to .63 1.50 to .60 0.7 to 1.7
Poplar........ .38 1.63 0.6
Willow........ .59 .70 1.4
Examples: -- a raft of alder, weighing 200 lbs., would just support
200 x .25 or 50 lbs.
A burden of 100 lbs. would require a raft of alder, weighing not les
than 100 x 4.0, or 400 lbs. to support it.
Burning down Trees.--Where there are no means at hand to fell trees, they
should be burnt down; two men may attend to the burning of twenty trees
at one and the same time. When felled, their tops and branches, also, are
to be trimmed by fire. (See "Hutting Palisades.")
Reed Rafts.--Mr. Andersson, in exploring the Tioughe River, in South
Africa, met with two very simple forms of rafts: the one was a vast
quantity of reeds cut down, heaped into a stack of from 30 to 50 feet in
diameter, pushed out into the water, and allowed to float down stream:
each day, as the reeds became water-logged, more were cut and thrown on
the stack: its great bulk made it sure of passing over shallow places;
and when it struck against "snags," the force of the water soon slewed it
round and started it afresh. On an affair of this description, Mr.
Andersson, with seven attendants, and two canoes hauled up upon it,
descended the river for five days. The second reed raft was a small and
neat one, and used for ferries; it was a mattress of reeds, 5 feet long,
3 broad, and some 8 inches thick, tied together with strips of the reeds
themselves; to each of its four corners was fixed a post, made of an
upright faggot of reeds, 18 inches high; other faggots connected the tops
of the posts horizontally, in the place of rails: this was all; it held
one or two men, and nothing but reeds or rushes were used in its
construction.
Rafts of distended Hides.--"A single ox-hide may be made into a float
capable of sustaining about 300 lbs.; the skin is to be cut to the
largest possible circle, then gathered together round a short tube, to
the inner end of which a valve, like that of a common pair of bellows,
has been applied; it is inflated with bellows, and, as the air escapes by
degrees, it may be refilled every ten or twelve hours." ('Handbook for
Field Service.')
We read of the skins of animals, stuffed with hay to keep them distended,
having been used by Alexander the Great, and by others.
Goatskin rafts are extensively used on the Tigris and elsewhere. These
are inflated through one of the legs: they are generally lashed to a
framework of wood, branches, and reeds, in such a way that the leg is
accessible to a person sitting on the raft: when the air has in part
escaped, he creeps round to the skins, one after the other, untying and
re-inflating them in succession.
[Sketch fig. 1 and fig. 2 showing gourd rafts].
African Gourd Raft.--Over a large part of Bornu, especially on its
Komadugu--the so-called River Yeou of Central Africa--no boat is used,
except the following ingenious contrivance. It is called a "makara," or
boat pareminence.
Two large open gourds are nicely balanced, and fixed, bottom downwards,
on a bar or yoke of light wood, 4 feet long, 4 1/2 inches wide, and 3/4
or 1 inch thick. The fisherman, or traveller, packs his gear into the
gourds; launches the makara into the river, and seats himself astride the
bar. He then paddles off, with help of his hands (fig. 1). When he leaves
the river, he carries the makara on his back (fig. 2). The late Dr. Barth
wrote to me, "A person accustomed to such sort of voyage, sits very
comfortably; a stranger holds on to one of the calabashes. There is no
fear of capsizing, as the calabashes go under water, according to the
weight put upon them, from ten to sixteen inches. The yoke is firmly
fastened to the two calabashes, for it is never taken off. I am scarcely
able, at present, to say how it is fastened. As far as I remember, it is
fixed by a very firm lashing, which forms a sort of network over the
calabash, and at the same time serves to strengthen the latter and guard
it against an accident." It is obvious that the gourds might be replaced
by inflated bags or baskets, covered with leather, or by copper or tin
vessels, or by any other equivalent. I quite agree with Dr. Barth, that a
makara would be particularly suitable for a traveller. In Bornu, they
make large rafts, by putting a frame over several of these makara, placed
side by side.
[Sketch of sailing boat].
Rude Boats.--Brazilian Sailing-boat.--A simpler sailing-boat or raft
could hardly be imagined than that shown in the figure; it is used by
fishermen in Brazil.
Log Canoes are made by hollowing out a long tree by axe and by fire, and
fastening an outrigger to one side of it, to give steadiness in the
water. Recollect Robinson Crusoe's difficulty in launching his canoe
after he had made it. (See "Rafts of Wood.") It is not a difficult,
though a tedious operation, to burn out hollows in wood; the fire is
confined by wet earth, that it may not extend too far to either side, and
the charred matter is from time to time scraped away, and fresh fire
raked back on the newly-exposed surface. A lazy savage sill be months in
making a single canoe in this way.
[Fig 1 and fig 2 sketch of boat and pattern].
Canoe of Three Planks.--A swift, safe, and graceful little boat, with a
sharp stem and stern, and with a bottom that curves upwards at both ends,
can be made out of three planks. The sketch, fig. 1, is a foreshortened
view of the boat, and the diagram, fig. 2, shows the shape of the planks
from which it is made. The thwart or seat shown in fig. 1 is important in
giving the proper inclination to the sides of the boat, for, without it,
they would tend to collapse; and the bottom would be less curved at
either end. If the reader will take the trouble to trace fig. 2 on a
stout card, to cut it out in a single piece (cutting only half through
the cardboard where the planks touch), and to fasten it into shape with
pieces of gummed paper, he will understand the architecture of the boat
more easily than from any description. If he wishes to build a boat he
had best proceed to make as large a model in pasteboard as his materials
admit, and to cut the planks to scale, according to the pattern of his
model. The grace of the boat depends on the cut of its planks, just as
much as the elegance of a dress does on that of its cloth. These
three-plank canoes are in frequent use in Norway. Bark may be used
instead of planks. If the canoe be built of five planks instead of three,
a second narrow side-plank being added above each gunwale, the section of
the canoe is decidedly improved.
Inflatable India-rubber Boats are an invention that has proved invaluable
to travellers: they have been used in all quarters of the globe, and are
found to stand every climate. A full-sized one weighs only 40 lbs. They
have done especial service in Arctic exploration; the waters of the Great
Salt Lake, in the Mormon country, were first explored and navigated with
one by Fremont; they were also employed by Dr. Livingstone on the rivers
of South Africa. They stand a wonderful amount of wear and tear; but, as
boats, they are inferior to native canoes, as they are very slow in the
water: it is, indeed, impossible to paddle them against a moderate
head-wind. For the general purposes of travellers, I should be inclined
to recommend as small a macintosh-boat as can be constructed; just
sufficient for one, or at the most for two, persons; such as the cloaks
that are made inflatable, and convertible into boats. A traveller wants a
portable boat, chiefly as means to cross over to a village for help, or
to carry his valuables across a river, while the heavy things are risked
at a ford; or for shooting, fishing, or surveying. Now a very small boat,
weighing about ten pounds, would do as well for all these purposes as a
large one, and would be far more portable.
It is perfectly easy to get into a macintosh-boat, after having been
capsized out of it into deep water.
Basket-boat with Canvas Sides.--FitzRoy gives an account of a party of
his sailors, whose boat had been stolen while they were encamped, putting
out to sea in a large basket, woven with such boughs as were at hand, and
covered with their canvas tent--the inside of which they had puddled with
clay, to keep the water from oozing through too fast. They were eighteen
hours afloat in this crazy craft. I mention this instance, to show how
almost anything will make a boat. Canvas saturated with grease or oil is
waterproof, and painted canvas is at first an excellent covering for a
boat, but it soon becomes rotten.
Canoe of Reeds or Vegetable Fibre.--A canoe may be made of reeds, rushes,
or the light inner bark of trees. Either of these materials is bound into
three long faggots, pointed at one end: these are placed side by side and
lashed together, and the result is a serviceable vessel, of the
appearance fig. 1, and section as fig. 2. The Lake Titicaca, which lies
far above the limit of trees, is navigated by boats made of rushes, and
carrying sails woven of rushes also. Little boats are sometimes made of
twigs, and are then plastered both inside and outside with clay, but they
are very leaky.
[Fig 1 and fig 2--sketches of reed canoe].
Hide Tray.--This is a good contrivance; and if the hide be smoked (see
"Hides") after it is set, it is vastly improved. In its simplest form,
Peruvian travellers describe it as a dish or tray, consisting of a dry
hide pinched up at the four corners, and each corner secured with a
thorn. The preferable plan is to make eyelet-holes round its rim, and
pass a thong through, drawing it pretty close: the tray is kept in shape,
by sticks put inside and athwart its bottom.
Coracle and Skin Punt.--If a traveller has one hide only at his disposal
he should make a coracle, if he has two, a punt. This last is a really
useful boat; one in which very great distances of river may be descended
with safety, and much luggage taken. Hide boats are very light, since the
weight of a bullock's skin only averages 45 lbs.; but, unless well
greased, they soon rot. When taken out of the water, they should be laid
bottom upwards to dry. To make a proper and substantial coracle, a dozen
or more oxier or other wands must be cut; these are to be bent, and have
both ends stuck in the ground, in such a way as to form the framework of
the required boat, bottom upwards, much like half a walnut-shell in
shape, but flatter. Where these wands cross, they should be lashed; and
sticks should be wattled in, to fill up gaps. A raw hide is then thrown
over the framework, sewn in place, and left to dry. Finally, the
projecting ends of the osiers have to be cut off. Should this boat, by
any chance, prove a failure, the hide is not wasted, but can be removed,
soaked till soft, and used again.
A skin punt requires two bullocks' or other hides, and also about ten
small willow-trees, or other tough flexible wood, 14 feet long. Captain
Palliser says that a couple of days is sufficient for two people to
complete an entire punt of this description. He has been so good as to
furnish me with the following minute description of the way of making
this very useful boat.
1. The keel, stem and stern might be in one; but because the stem and
stern ought to be strong, this whole line is made of two small trees
lashed together with the thick ends outwards, as in fig. 1, where AB is a
lithe clean little willow-tree, and ab another similar one. They are
lashed together at their taper ends.
2. Cut notches half-way through KK, at about 20 to 25 inches from each
end; then turn up the notched portions, and you have stem, keel and
stern, all in one piece, as in fig. 2.
[Fig 1 and Fig 2 sketches].
3. Stake out the ground, according to the size your boat will cover, by
driving eight strong pointed stakes of wood into the ground; to these
lash four cross (willow-tree) sticks, notched in two places, so that each
of these four willows shall form two knees, as well as run across the
bottom of the boat.
4. Bent two more main willows for gunwales for the boat, and two more for
bottom rails. Each separate stick, as will be perceived by fig. 3, is
lashed in five different places, and the keep in eight places.
[Fig 3 and Fig 4--sketches as described].
The main framework being now completed, loosen it from the stakes driven
into the ground.
5. Fasten a large number of little slender willow-twigs between each of
the main cross-knees, as shown by the thin lines in fig. 3. It is then
fit for covering. Lift it up like a basket, and turn it topsy-turvy.
6. Kill two bulls, skin them, and in skinning be careful to make your
cuts in the skin down the rump to the hock of the animal, and down the
brisket in front of the fore-leg to the knee, so as to have your skins as
square as possible (fig. 4). Cut off the heads, and sew the skins
together at the nape of the necks; and, while reeking, cover the
wicker-work, turning them over it, the hairy side inwards, and fasten it
all round by means of skin-cords. Cut holes with a knife round the edges,
to pass the cords through, as you lash up to the top-rails of the boat.
7. Leave it 24 hours in the sun; cover the seam where the skins are sewn
together, with melted fat, and the boat is fit for use.
Bark Boats.--"From a pine, or other tree, take off with care the longest
possible entire portion of the bark; while fresh and flexible, spread it
flat as a long rectangular sheet; then turn it carefully up at the sides,
the smooth side outwards; sew the ends together, and caulk them well. A
few cross-sticks for thwarts complete this contrivance, which is made by
an American Indian in a few hours, and in which the rapid waters of the
Mackenzie are navigated for hundreds of miles. Ways of strengthening the
structure will readily suggest themselves. The native material for sewing
is the fibrous root of the pine." ("Handbook for Field Service,"
Lieut.-Col. Lefroy.)
[Figs I, II, III, and IV--sketches as described].
Birch-bark canoes.--Birch bark, as is well known, is used for building
canoes in North America, and the bark of many other trees would do for
covering the framework of a boat, in default of leather. But it is
useless to give a detailed account of birch canoes, as great skill and
neat execution are required both in making and in using them.
Boats of Sheet-tin, covered with Pitched Canvas.--These might be made at
any of the outposts of civilization. I am indebted to a correspondent,
whose name I regret exceedingly to be unable to insert, having
unfortunately mislaid it, for the following full description of his
shooting-punt. It will be obvious that his methods are applicable not
only to their professed object, but also to tin boats of any shape
whatever.
"Form the bottom, fig. I., as follows:--Select the thickest sheets of tin
and solder them together by their narrowest sides, until as many lengths
are made as, when laid side by side, will be sufficient for the whole
length and breadth of the figure. The soldering should be by a joint of
this kind."
[Sketch of join].
"These lengths must then be soldered side by side by a similar joint, and
the whole sheet thus made, trimmed to the shape of fig. I., care being
taken that no two joints in the lengths should be exactly opposite each
other. Form two other sheets in a similar manner for the two sides, and
of the shape of fig. II. The dotted lines a b c d e f, fig. I., show the
portions of the tin round the edges, 1 inch wide, which must be turned up
at right angles with the bottom, and to which the sides are to be
soldered on the inside; they should have triangular pieces clipped out of
them, as shown in the fig., where the bends of the boat begin, to make
them take the curve required. The two extra pieces at the ends a d, e f,
2 inches wide, are for turning down over an iron rod, which is to pass
round the gunwale, to give stiffness to the boat; g h, fig. II., is a
breadth of 2 inches of extra tin, for the same purpose of turning down
over the iron rod.
"Each side is now to be soldered to the bottom piece, beginning with the
centre, and working in to each end.
"The soldering of the turned-up edges to the bottom, on the outside, may
then be done. Separate slips of tin 2 inches wide should then be bent up
longitudinally in halves, like angle-iron, and fitted along the joining
of the bottom and sides, on the inside, and soldered; these slips may
also be clipped on either side, when necessary, to make them take the
curves.
"The measure round the gunwale may now be taken within the edge of the
tin, and an iron rod 3/8 of an inch thick, to go round this gunwale, bent
to the form of the outline of fig. III., i b k c, which will now be that
of the boat, and the ends welded at their meeting. Sufficient iron rod
must be taken to form eyes at i and k to receive rings of 3 or 4 inches
diameter, through which a pole is to be passed, for carrying the boat,
and for their welding at the meeting of the ends.
"The iron-rod gunwale may now be put in, and the 2 inches width of tin,
allowed in excess on the sides and ends of the bottom, turned down
closely over the rod, all round and soldered on the inside. The side
elevation of the boat will now be as w x y, fig. IV. "The boat should be
proved as to being water-tight by filling it with water, any leak being
stopped by more solder.
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