[Sketch of bag with skewer and bag being carried].

The Bushmen do this. The water oozes through the membrane, and by its
evaporation the contents are kept very cool. Another plan is, after
having tied a length of intestine at both ends, to roll it up in a
handkerchief and wear it as a belt round the waist. The fault of these
membranous bags, besides their disgusting character and want of strength
is, that they become putrid after a few days' use.

Vessels for Cooling Water may be made that shall also act efficiently as
flasks. Porous earthen jars are too brittle for long use, and their pores
choke up if slimy water be put inside them. But the Arabs use a porous
leather flask, called a Zemsemiya, which is hung on the shady side of the
camel, and by evaporation keeps the water deliciously cool: it is a
rather wasteful way of carrying water. Canvas bags are equally effective.

Open Buckets, for carrying water for short distances, or for storing it
in camp, may be made of the bark of a tree, either taken off in an entire
cylinder, and having a bottom fitted on, or else of a knot or excrescence
that has been cut off the outside of a tree, and its woody interior
scooped out; or of birth bark sewed or pegged at the corners, and having
its seams coated with the gum or resin of the pine-tree. Baskets with
oiled cloth inside, make efficient water-vessels; they are in use in
France as firemen's buckets. Water-tight pots are made on the Snake river
by winding long touch roots in a spiral manner, and lashing the coils to
one another, just as is done in making a beehive. Earthenware jars are
excellent, when they can be obtained.

To prevent Splashing.--When carrying water in buckets, put a wreath of
grass, or something else that will float, on the water, to prevent it
from splashing; and also make a hoop, inside which the porter may walk,
while his laden hands rest on its rim: the hoop keeps his hands wide from
his body, and prevents the buckets from knocking against his legs.

Mending Leather Water-vessels.--If a water-vessel becomes leaky, the
hole should be caulked by stuffing a rag, a wedge of wood, a tuft of
grass, or anything else into it, as shown in the upper figure and also in
the left side of the lower one (p. 230), and then greasing or waxing it
over. A larger rent must be Seized upon, the lips of the wound pinched
up, a thorn or other spike run through the lips, and lastly a piece of
twine lashed firmly round, underneath the thorn; the thorn keeps the
string from slipping off (See the right-hand corner of the lower figure.)
When there is an opportunity, the bag must be patched, as is also shown
in the lower figure.

[Sketch of parts of two bags as referred to in text].

Repairing a battered Metal Flask.--Fill it with dry seed, such as peas
or mustard-seed; then pour in water and put the stopper into it. After a
period varying from 1 to 3 or 4 hours, according to the nature of the
seeds, they will begin to swell and to force the sides of the flask
outwards into their original shape. The swelling proceeds rather rapidly
after it has once commenced, so the operation requires watching, lest it
should be overdone and the flask should burst.

Corks and Stoppers.--Thrust a cork tightly into the mouth of the flask,
cut a hole through the cork and plug the hole, which will henceforth form
the outlet of the flask--with a stopper of wood, bone, or other hard
substance. Thread, wound round a slightly conical plug that has been
sufficiently notched to retain it in its place, makes it nearly
water-tight as a stopper. It is of less importance that the stopper
should fit closely, if the flask be so slung that its mouth shall be
always uppermost: a very imperfect cork will then be sufficient to check
evaporation and splashing, and to prevent the loss of more than a few
drops from occasional upsets.

Drinking, when riding or walking.--It is an awkward matter to drink when
jolting on wheels, on horseback, or on foot. I adopted the plan of
carrying a piece of small india-rubber tubing 6 or 8 inches long, and
when I wished to drink, I removed the stopper and inserted the tube, just
as an insect might let down its proboscis, and sucked the contents. Sir
S. Baker says of the people of Unyoro, "During a journey, a pretty,
bottle-shaped, long-necked gourd is carried with a store of
plantain-cider; the mouth of the bottle is stopped with a bundle of the
white rush shreds, through which a reed is inserted that reaches to the
bottom: thus the drink can be sucked up during the march, without the
necessity of halting; nor is it possible to spill it by the movement of
walking."

Kegs and Tanks.--Keys for Pack-saddles.--Small barrels, flattened
equally on both sides, so that their tops and bottoms shall be of an oval
and not a circular shape, are the most convenient vessels,
notwithstanding their weight, for carrying water on pack-saddles across a
broken country. They are exceedingly strong, and require no particular
attention, while bags of leather or macintosh suffer from thorns, and
natives secretly prick them during the march, that they may suck a
draught of water. These kegs should not exceed 22 inches in length, 10 in
extreme breadth, and 7 in extreme width; a cask of these measurements
would hold about 40 lbs. weight of water, and its own weight might be 15
lbs. As the water is expended, it is easy to replace the diminished
weight by putting on a bag from one of the other packs. Before starting
away into the bush, these kegs should be satisfactorily fitted and
adjusted to the pack-saddle that is intended to carry them, in such a way
that they may be packed on to it with the least possible trouble. A
couple of leather or iron loops Fixed to each keg, and made to catch on
to the hooks which are let flush into the sides of the pack-saddle, will
effect this.

[Sketch as described below].

The sketch represents a section of the pack-saddle, at the place where
one of the hooks is situated on either side, but the front of the kegs
themselves, and not their section, is given. Above and between the kegs
lies a bag, and a strap passing from the near side of the saddle goes
over the whole burden, and is buckled to a similar short strap on the
other side. It is of importance that the bung-hole should be placed even
nearer to the rim than where it is drawn, for it is necessary that it
should be convenient to pour out of and to pour into, and that it should
be placed on the highest part of the keg, both when on the beast's back
and also when it stands on the ground, lest water should leak and be
lost. According to the above plan, when water is ladled into it, the rim
keeps it from spilling; and in pouring out water, the run acts as a
spout. In making the bung-hole, a metal plate, with a screw-hole in it,
is firmly fixed in the face of the cask; into this a wooden stopper,
bound with iron, is made to screw (natives would probably steal a metal
one). The stopper has a small head and a deeply-cut neck, by which it is
tied to the cask, and its body has a large hole bored in it, which admits
of a stick being put through, to prize it round, if it should become
jammed. A spigot, to screw into the bung-hole on arriving at camp, might
be really useful; but if used, a gimlet-hole must be bored in the cask to
act as an air-vent. A large tundish is very convenient, and a spare plug
might be taken; but a traveller, with a little painstaking, could soon
cut a plug with his own knife, sufficiently well made to allow of its
being Firmly screwed in, and of retaining the water, if it had a bit of
rag wrapped round it. A piece of rag rolled tightly, will suffice to plug
a hole.

Siphons.--A flexible tube of some kind, whether of india-rubber,
gutta-percha, or, still better, of macintosh, strained over rings, would
be very valuable as a siphon: both for filling large kegs out of buckets
and for emptying them again. Vulcanised india-rubber becomes rotten after
short use, and gutta-percha will stand no extremes of temperature.

Tanks for Wagons.--There still remain many large districts in Asia,
Africa, and Australia which may be explored in wagons, but, so far as I
am aware, no particular pattern of a water-tank, suitable for carriage on
wheels, has yet been adopted by travellers. I believe kegs are generally
used, but they are far too heavy for the requirements of a wagon.
Probably the tins used for sending milk by cart and railway to towns,
would be very serviceable for carrying water on expeditions. They are
invariably made of the same shape, and only of few different sizes.
Therefore experience must have shown that their pattern is better than
any other yet devised. Their mouths can be padlocked, which is an
important matter.

Macintosh Bags.--I would also recommend a trial of square bags of strong
macintosh--say 18 inches deep and 10 inches square, in which case they
would hold 60 lbs. of water--fitting into square compartments, in large
panniers, like those in a bottle-basket. I have made some experiments
upon this arrangement. The basket-work gives protection against blows and
the jolting together of packages, and it yields without harm to a strain,
and the bags yield also. Moreover, water is less churned in half-empty
bags than in half-empty barrels. No unusual strength of materials would
be required in making these bags: their mouths should be funnel-shaped,
and corked at the neck of the funnel. The funnels should be wide at their
mouths, for convenience in filling them; and a string to secure the cork
should be tied round the neck of the funnel. The bags should have loops
on their sides, through which a strap, passing underneath, might run, in
order to Give a good hold for lifting them up. They could easily be
filled as they lay in their compartments, and would only require to be
lifted out in order to empty them; there is, therefore, no objection to
their holding as much as 60 lbs. weight of water. An india-rubber tube as
a siphon, and with a common spigot at the end of it, would be
particularly useful. A pannier not much exceeding 30 inches long, by 20
broad, and 18 deep, would hold six of these bags, or 360 lbs. weight of
water in all; and two such panniers would be ample for exploring
purposes. I had a pannier and two bags made for a trial, which were quite
satisfactory, and I found that the weight of the panniers and bags
together was at the rate of 6 lbs. for each compartment; therefore the
weight of these water-vessels is not more than 10 per cent. Of that of
the water which they carry. It might be well to vary the contents of some
of the compartments; putting, for instance, two or even three small bags
into one, and tin cases into a few of the others, instead of the large
bags. These panniers, with the bags inflated, and connected together by a
stage, would form an excellent and powerful raft. If secured within a
wagon about to cross a deep river, they would have enough power, in all
ordinary cases, to cause it to float and not to sink to the bottom. I
trust some explorer will try this plan. I may add that the macintosh
water-bags cost me about 1 pound each.

Raw Hide Bags/--Captain Sturt, when he explored in Australia, took a tank
in his cart, which burst, and besides that, he carried casks of water. By
these he was enabled to face a desert country with a degree of success to
which no traveller before had ever attained. For instance, when returning
homewards, the water was found to be drying up on all sides of him. He
was encamped by a pool where he was safe, whence the next stage was 118
miles, or 4 days' journey, but it was a matter of considerable doubt
whether there remained any water at the end of the stage. It was
absolutely necessary to reconnoitre, and in order to do so, he had first
to provide the messenger with the means of returning, should the
watering-place be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and filling
the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), Sent it by an ex-dray 30
miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he despatched
a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the horse and man
were to drink at the hide, and then to go on. Thus they had 36 gallons to
supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or 6 days, at 30 miles a day at
the close of which they would return to the ox-hide--sleeping, in fact,
5 nights on 36 gallons of water. This a hardy, well-driven horse could
do, even in the hottest climate.

To raise Water from Wells for Cattle.--By hand.--Let one man stand in
the water, or just above it; another 5 feet higher; and again another
higher still, if the depth of the well requires it. Then let the
lowermost man dip a bucket in the water, and pass it from hand to hand
upwards; the top man pours the water into a trough, out of which the
cattle drink. This trough may be simply a ditch scratched in the ground;
a piece of canvas should be thrown over it, if the soil be sandy, to keep
the water from being lost before the cattle have time to drink it. Thus
Eyre speaks of watering his horse, out of his black servant's duck frock.
Light gutta-percha buckets are very useful in temperate climates; and so
are baskets, with oilcloth inside them.

The drove of cattle should be brought up to 60 yards from the
watering-place; then three or four should be driven out--they will run
at once to the water. After they have drunk, drive them to one side, and
let another three or four take their place, and so on; keeping the two
droves quite distinct--those that have drunk, and those that are waiting
to drink. They will drink at the rate of one per minute; sheep and goats
drink very much faster. Never let the cattle go in a rush to the well,
else they will stamp it in, most of them get no water, and they will all
do a great deal of damage.

By horse power.--It does not fall within the scope of this book to
describe water-wheels worked by cattle, or elaborate mechanism of any
kind; I therefore only mention under this head, that the Tartars
sometimes draw water from their wells, of 150 feet deep and upwards, by a
rider harnessing the bucket-rope to his horse, and galloping him off to a
mark that tells the proper distance. Their ropes are of twisted hair, and
are made to run over a smoothed stone, or a log of wood.

[Sketches of pole and bucket and pump as described below].

A pole and bucket is a very convenient way of raising water from 4 to 12
feet. The bucket may be made of canvas, basket-work, leather, wood, or
almost any other material; leakage, though considerable, is of little
consequence, because the action of the apparatus is so quick, that there
is not time for much water to be lost. This contrivance is used over
almost the whole globe--less in England than elsewhere; it is very
common where long poles can easily be obtained, as in fir forests.

Pump.--An excellent and very simple pump is used by the Arabs in
Algeria. A piece of leather or waxed canvas, is stretched round one or
more hoops; it forms a hollow cylinder, that admits of being shut flat
like an accordion. The top and bottom of the cylinder are secured round
the edges of two discs of wood. Holes are bored in these discs and
leather valves are fitted to them. The lower disc is nailed to the bottom
of a tub; the hole in it corresponds with the feed-pipe, and the valve
that covers the hole opens upwards. The upper disc Is attached to the
pump handle; the valves that cover the holes in this disc, open upwards
also. When the leather-pump barrel is pressed flat, water flows through
the upper valves into the barrel around it; when it is pulled out, water
is sucked up through the feed-pipe, and an equal quantity is displaced
from the barrel. This flows out into the trough. A bag would do as well
as a tub, to hold the water which surrounds the pump-barrel; but, without
the water which it is the object of either the one or the other to
contain, the pump-barrel must be air-proof as well as water-proof. The
action of this pump is marvellously perfect. It attracted much attention
in the French Exhibition of 1855.



GUNS AND RIFLES.


General Remarks.--Breech-loaders.--At the present time when the merits
of different kinds of breech-loader are so hotly discussed, when all that
have yet been invented have some faults, and every month brings to light
some new invention, it would be foolish in me to write anything about
them; it would be obsolete before the great majority of my readers should
have seen this book. Therefore omitting breech-loaders altogether from
the present edition, I will confine myself to repeating what I have said
before upon muzzle-loaders, with additions and alterations.

Size of Gun.--American bushrangers advocate a long heavy pea-rifle, on
the plea of its accurate shooting, and the enormous saving in weight of
ammunition when bullets of a small size are used. The objections to
small-bored rifles are, insufficiency against large game (even with
conical bullets), and a tendency to become foul after a few shots. A
short light rifle, whether with a large or a small bore, is, I believe,
utterly worthless. In the hands of a man trembling with running and with
exhaustion, it shakes like a wand: the shorter the rifle, the more
quickly does it oscillate, and of course, in the same proportion, is it
difficult to catch the exact moment when the sights cover the object.

For the larger kinds of game, such as elephants and buffaloes,
experienced sportsmen mostly prefer guns of immense Bore, carrying round
bullets that weigh a quarter of a pound. The recoil is tremendous, and
would injure the shoulder if the sportsman did not use a pad against
which he rests the gun. The guns must be strong, because very large
charges of powder are invariably used where great power of penetration is
required. African sportsmen found this out experimentally long before the
idea occurred to artillerists.

Sights.--The hind sight should be far from the eye, even though it be
placed half-way down the barrel: else it becomes out of focus and
indistinct, when the eye is firmly set on the object aimed at; this
drawback is never compensated by the advantage of having the front and
hind sights far asunder.

Ramrod.--The guns of servants and indeed those of their masters, should
have thin soft-iron ramrods; the elasticity of these when slightly bent,
will retain them in the ramrod-tubes; both ends of the ramrod must be
forged broad.

Screw to secure the Cock.--In common guns, this screw is very liable to
get loose, fall out and be lost; it is therefore desirable to have one or
more spare screws.

Water-proof Cover should not be forgotten.

Rust, to prevent.--Paraffine and mercurial ointment are perhaps the two
best things to keep rust off iron, in sea voyages or in boat-shooting.
Before embarking for a voyage, it is convenient to enclose the guns in a
leaden case, which, on arrival, can be melted up into bullets. It is
remarkable how much better dirty guns withstand rust than clean ones.

Olive oil, to purify.--Put a piece of lead in the glass bottle that
contains the oil, and expose to the sun; a quantity of cloudy matter will
separate after a few days, then the refined oil may be decanted.

The small of the stock is the weakest part of a gun: it is constantly
broken by falls in travel. Sir Samuel Baker justly recommends that "all
guns made for sport in wild countries and rough riding, should have steel
instead of iron from the Breech-socket, extending far back to within six
inches of the shoulder plate; the trigger-guard should likewise be steel,
and should be carried back to an equal distance with the above rib; the
steel should be of extra thickness, and screwed through to the upper
piece; thus the two being connected by screws above and below, no fall
could break the stock."

Injuries to Guns, to repair.--Ramrod tubes often break off, and it is a
very troublesome accident when they do so. I know of no contrivance to
fasten them on again, except by using soft solder, the application of
which will not in the least hurt the gun: ashes, at a dull red heat, must
be heaped over the barrel to warm it sufficiently, before applying the
solder. If the ramrod tubes have been lost, others made of tin may
replace them.

The Sight of a Gun, if it falls out and is lost, can easily be replaced
by a substitute. A groove must be cut with a file across the substance of
the barrel, if the gun be a single one, or across the midrib, if
double-barrelled; into this a piece of iron, ivory, bone, horn, or hard
wood, with a projection carved in the middle for the sight, must be
pushed, then the metal on either side must be battered down over it, with
a hammer or stone, to keep it firm.

A broken Stock, however much it may be smashed, can be well mended by raw
hide (see "Hides"). Blacksmith's work and carpentering are seldom
sufficient for the purpose. It is within the power of a rough workman to
make a gun-stock, but it is a work of great labour.

A Ramrod may be replaced by cutting a stick from a tree, straightening it
in the fire, and then seasoning it. (See "Green Wood.")

Guns to hang up, to carry, and to clean.--Hanging Guns to a Wall.--Fix
a loop of leather for the muzzle, and a strap and buckle for the stock,
with a piece of sheepskin or canvas nailed so as to hang over it, as in
fig. 1. A more complete way is to sew a long pocket with a flap to it,
which is tied up on to a stick or bar, as in fig. 2: the gun has simply
to be Lifted out and in. The pocket must be made baggy at the part which
corresponds to the cocks of the gun.

[Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 As described in text].

Carrying Guns on a Journey.--"Look at the gun, but never let the gun
look at you, or at your companions," is a golden rule; for among the
chances of death to which a traveller is exposed, that of being shot by
an attendant's gun going off accidentally, ranks high. Servants should
carry their guns with the cock down on a piece of rag, that covers the
cap: take it all in all, it is the best plan for them. A sportsman will
find great convenience in having a third nick cut in the tumbler of his
lock, so as to give an additional low half-cock, at which the cock just
clears the nipple; it will prevent the cap from falling off or receiving
a blow. I have long used this plan, and find no objections to it: many
pistols are furnished with this contrivance. Careless gun-makers
sometimes make this catch so low, that when the cock is lifted a little
back from it, and let go, it strikes the cap by reason of the elasticity
of its metal, and lets off the gun: the traveller should beware of this
fault of workmanship.

[Sketch of gun as described].

As this book may fall into the hands of persons ignorant of the danger of
carrying a gun with the cock down on the nipple (to which cause I find
that three-fourths of gun accidents are owing, having once kept a list of
those that were reported in the newspapers), I will remark that when the
cock is down, a heavy blow on its back, nay, even the jar caused by the
gun falling on the ground, will cause the cap to explode. Again if the
cock catch against the dress, or against A twig, it is liable to be
lifted, when, on being released, it will snap down upon the cap. When a
gun is at half-cock, the first of these accidents obviously cannot occur;
and, as to the second, if the cock be pulled back and let drop, it falls,
not down upon the cap, but to half-cock again, except only in the case
where the trigger is also pressed back. The objections to carrying a gun
at half-cock are, that careless people occasionally leave it on full-cock
without perceiving the difference, and that there is a probability of
weakening the main-spring, if day after day it be kept on the strain.

Carrying Guns when Stalking Game.--In creeping after game, the gun is
always troublesome; there is no better plan than pushing it as far as the
arm can reach, then creeping up to it, and again pushing it forwards.

Carrying Guns on Horseback.--Allow me very strongly to recommend a trial
of the following plan, even for a shooting-pony in Scotland. It is the
invention of the Namaquas. I and all my party in South Africa used it for
a year and a half, and many persons have adopted the plan in England
since I first published a description of it. Sew a bag of canvas,
leather, or hide, of such a size as to admit the butt of the gun pretty
freely. The straps that support the bag, buckle through a ring in the
pommel; the thongs by which the slope of the bag is adjusted, are
fastened round the girth, below. The exact adjustments may not be hit
upon, by an unpractised person, for some time; but, when they are once
ascertained, the thongs need never be shifted. The gun is perfectly safe:
it never comes below the armpit, even in taking a crop leap: it is pulled
out in an instant by bringing the elbow forwards in front of the gun and
then backwards, pressing it against the side; by this manner, the gun is
thrown to the outside of the arm: then, lowering the hand, catch the gun
as near the trigger-guard as you can, and lift it out of the bag: (it is
a bungling way to take out the gun whilst its barrel lies between the arm
and the body). Any sized gun can be carried in this fashion, and it
offers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting.

I hear that some sportsmen, who were probably unacquainted with this
method, have used a bag or pocket of stiff Leather attached to the side
of the saddle, just behind the right leg; into this, when tired of
carrying the gun, they push the butt. It is said to lie there securely
and to give no trouble, the barrel passes forwards under the right arm,
and the muzzle is in front of the rider.

[Drawing of horse, rider and gun as described above].

The French dragoons carry a gun in a way that is convenient for military
purposes, because it does not interfere with the immense housings that
cavalry soldiers require; but it is not so handy, it does not lie so
freely as the above, nor is it as well suited to a traveller or a
sportsman. The gun is placed butt downwards, as in the Namaqua method,
and leans backwards in the same way; but the under side of the gun,
instead of being backwards, or towards the horse's tail, Is towards his
head. The butt lies in a shallow bucket, secured by two straps fixed to
the front of the saddle; another strap, leading from the pommel, and
passing over the right thigh of the rider, is hitched round the barrel of
the gun, and has to be unbuckled and cast off when the gun is taken out.

All ways of carrying the gun with its muzzle downwards, are very
objectionable; since the jolting tends to dislodge the charge; if it be
considerably dislodged, the gun will probably burst, on being fired.
Also, a very little shaking, when the muzzle is downwards, will shake the
powder out of the nipple, and therefore, a gun, so carried, will
constantly miss fire.

At Night, to dispose of Guns.--A gun is a very awkward thing to dispose
of at night. It has occurred more than once that a native servant has
crept up, drawn away the gun of his sleeping master, and shot him dead.
The following appears to me an excellent plan:--"When getting sleepy, you
return your rifle between your legs, roll over, and go to sleep. Some
people may think this is a queer place for a rifle; but, on the contrary,
it is the position of all others where utility and comfort are most
combined.

[Sketch of man and gun as described].

The butt rests on the arm, and serves as a pillow for the head; the
muzzle points between the knees, and the arms encircle the lock and
breech, so that you have a smooth pillow, and are always prepared to
start Up armed at a moment's notice." (Parkyns' 'Abyssinia.') The longer
the gun, the more secure is the sleeper from accident. The sketch is not
quite accurate, for, in practice, the weight of the gun is never allowed
to rest so entirely on the arm, as it is here represented: if it did so,
the arm would soon be numbed. The gun-stock may be a little bolstered up
if desired, to avoid any troublesome pressure on the arm.

Cleaning Guns.--A bit of rag does as well as tow, and can be used over
and over again. A top furnished with a sponge, to screw to the cleaning
rod, is convenient. "A leaded barrel must be cleaned with fine sand."
(Hawker.) Quicksilver, if it be at hand, will dissolve out the lead at
once.



GUN-FITTINGS AND AMMUNITION.


Powder-flask.--The flask that is carried in the pocket may be small, if
roomy; a large one, in reserve, being kept in a bag, at the front of the
saddle.

To reduce bulges in a metal powder-flask, fill it up with Indian corn, or
dry peas, of any other sort of hard grain; then pour water into it, and
screw down the lid tightly. The grain will swell, at first slowly and
then very rapidly, and the flask will resume its former dimensions, or
burst if it is not watched. Peas do not begin to swell for a couple of
hours or more.

Powder-horn, to make.--Saw off the required length from an ox's horn,
flatten it somewhat by heat (see "Horn"), fit a wooden bottom into it,
caulk it well, and sew raw hide round the edge to keep all tight. The
mouth must be secured by a plug, which may be hollowed to make a charger.
Pieces of cane of large diameter, and old gunpowder canisters, sewn up in
hide, make useful powder-flasks.

Percussion Caps.--Caps may be carried very conveniently by means of a
ring, with two dozen nipple-shaped beads, made of some metal, strung upon
it; each bead being intended to be covered by a percussion-cap. The beads
are cleft down the middle, which gives them a slight springiness, that
more effectually secures the caps that are placed upon them: the ring is
tied by a thong to the belt or button-hole. It is very Difficult, without
this contrivance, to keep caps free from sand, crumbs, and dirt, yet
always at hand when required. I can confidently recommend it, though as
it is old-fashioned and not well suited for sportsmen in England, it is
rarely to be met with. Spring cap holders are, I am sure, too delicate
for rough travel.

To protect Caps from the Rain.--Before stalking, or watching at night in
rainy weather, wax or grease the edge of the cap as it rests on the
nipple: it will thus become proof against water and damp air. Some
persons carry a piece of grease with them, when shooting in wet weather,
and with it they smear the top of the nipple after each loading, before
putting on the fresh cap. It is said that the grease does not prevent the
full action of the cap upon the powder. A sportsman has recommended to me
a couple of well-marked caps, into the heads of which small wads of cork
have been fitted; he uses them for loaded guns that are to be laid by for
some hours or days. A broad leaf wrapped loosely round the lock of a gun,
will protect it during a heavy shower.

Substitute for Caps.--When the revolution in Spain in 1854 began, "there
was a great want of percussion caps; this the insurgents supplied by
cutting off the heads of lucifer-matches and sticking them into the
nipples. The plan was found to answer perfectly." (Times, July 31.)

Gun-pricker.--I am indebted for the following plan, both for clearing
the touchhole, and also for the rather awkward operation of pricking down
fresh gunpowder into it, to an old sportsman in the Orkney Island of
Sanday. He takes a quill, and cuts off a broad ring from the large end of
it; this is pushed over the small end of the quill, and lies securely
there. Next, he cuts a wooden plug to fit the quill; into the plug, the
pricker is fixed.

[Sketch of gun-pricker as described].

The whole affair goes safely in the pocket; the quill acting as a sheath
to the sharp pricker. Now, when powder has to be pricked down the nipple,
the "broad ring" is slipped off the quill and put on the nipple, which it
fits; powder is poured into it, and the required operation is easily
completed. This little contrivance, which is so simple and Light, lasts
for months, and is perfectly effective. I have tried metal holders, but I
much prefer the simple quill, on account of its elasticity and lightness.
A little binding with waxed thread, may be put on, as shown in the
sketch, to prevent the quill from splitting.

Wadding.--The bush affords few materials from which wadding can be made;
some birds' nests are excellent for the purpose. I am told that a dry
hide will not serve as materials for wads.

Flints.--According to Ure's Dictionary, the best stones to choose for
making gun-flints are those that are not irregular in shape; they should
have, when broken, a greasy lustre, and be particularly smooth and
fine-grained; the colour is of no importance, but it should be uniform in
the same lump; and the more transparent the stones the better. Gun-flints
are made with a hammer, and a chisel of steel that is not hardened. The
stone is chipped by the hammer alone into pieces of the required
thickness, which are fashioned by being laid upon the fixed chisel, and
hammered against it. It takes nearly a minute for a practised workman to
make one gun-flint.

Gunpowder.--To carry Gunpowder.--Wrap it up in flannel or leather, not
in paper, cotton, or linen; because these will catch fire, or smoulder
like tinder, whilst the former will do neither the one nor the other.
Gunpowder carried in a goat-skin bag, travels very safely. Mr. Gregory
carried his in the middle of his flour; each flour-bag (see p. 69),
during his North Australian expedition, had a tin of gunpowder in the
middle of it.

To make Gunpowder.--It is difficult to make good gunpowder, but there is
no skill required in making powder that will shoot and kill. Many of the
negroes of Africa, make it for themselves--burning the charcoal,
gathering saltpetre from salt-pans, and buying the sulphur from trading
caravans: they grind the materials on a stone. In Chinese Tartary and
Thibet, every peasant manufactures it for himself.

To make 8 lbs. of gunpowder, take 1 lb. of charcoal, 1 lb. of sulphur,
and 6 lbs. of saltpetre. These proportions should be followed as
accurately as possible. Each of the three materials must be pounded into
powder separately, and then all mixed together most thoroughly. The
mixture must have a little water added to it, Enough to make it bind into
a stiff paste (about one-tenth part, by measure, of water is sufficient;
that is to say, one cupful of water to ten cupfuls of the mixed powder).
The paste must be well kneaded together, with one stone on another, just
as travellers usually make meal or grind coffee. It should then be
wrapped up to a piece of canvas, or a skin, and pressed, with as heavy a
pressure as can be obtained, to condense it. Next, the cake is squeezed
and worked against a sieve made of parchment, in which the holes have
been burnt with a red-hot wire, and through which the cake is squeezed in
grains. These grains are now put into a box, which is well shaken about,
and in this way the grains run each other smooth. The fine dust that is
then found mixed with the grains, must be winnowed away; lastly the
grains are dried.

Recapitulation.--1. Pound the ingredients separately. @. Mix them. 3.
Add a little water, and knead the mass. 4. Press it. 5. Rub the mass
through a sieve. 6. Shake up the grains in a box. 7. Get rid of the dust.
8. Dry the grains.

The ingredients should be used as pure as they can be obtained. For
making a few charges of coarse powder, the sieve may be dispensed with:
in this case, roll the dough into long pieces of the thickness of a pin;
lay several of these side by side, and mince the whole into small grains;
dust with powder, to prevent their sticking together: and then proceed as
already described.

To procure good Charcoal.--Light woods that give a porous charcoal, are
the best;--as poplar, alder, lime, horse-chestnut, willow, hazel-nut, and
elder. It should be made with the greatest care, and used as soon as
possible afterwards: it is the most important ingredient in gunpowder.

Sulphur.--The lumps must be melted over a gentle fire; the pot should
then be put in a heap of hot sand, to give the impurities time to settle,
before it cools into a mass. When this has taken place, the bottom part
must be broken off and put aside as unfit for making gunpowder, and the
top part alone used. Flower of sulphur is quite pure.

Saltpetre.--Dissolve the saltpetre that you wish to purify, in an equal
measure of boiling water; a cupful of one to a cupful of the other.
Strain this solution, and, letting it cool gradually, somewhat less than
three-fourths of the nitre will separate in regular crystals. Saltpetre
exists in the ashes of many plants, of which tobacco is one; it is also
found copiously on the ground in many places, in saltpans, or simply as
an effloresence. Rubbish, such as old mud huts, and mortar, generally
abounds with it. (It is made by the action of the air on the potash
contained in the earths.) The taste, which is that of gunpowder, is the
best test of its presence. To extract it, pour hot water on the mass,
then evaporate and purify, as mentioned above.

Rocket Composition consists of gunpowder 16 parts, by Weight; charcoal, 3
parts. Or, in other words, of nitre, 16 parts; charcoal 7 parts; sulphur,
4 parts. It must not be forgotten that when rockets are charged with the
composition, a hollow tube must be left down their middle.

Blue Fire.--4 parts gunpowder meal; 2 parts nitre, 3 parts sulphur; 3
parts zinc.

Bengal Fire.--7 parts nitre; 2 parts sulphur; 1 part antimony.

Bullets--Sportsmen, fresh from England, and acknowledged as good shots
at home, begin by shooting vilely with balls at large game. They must not
be discouraged at what is a general rule, but be satisfied that they will
soon do themselves justice.

Alloy.--Common bullets of lead, whether round or conical, are far
inferior to those of hard alloy; for the latter penetrate much more
deeply, and break bones, instead of flattening against them. A mixture of
very little tin, or pewter (which is lead and tin), with lead, hardens
it: we read of sportsmen melting up their spoons and dishes for this
purpose. A little quicksilver has the same effect. Sir Samuel Baker, who
is one of the most experienced sportsmen both in Ceylon and in Africa,
latterly used a mixture of nine-tenths lead and one-tenth quicksilver for
his bullets. He says, "This is superior to all [other] mixtures for that
purpose, as it combines hardness with extra weight; the lead must be
melted in a pot by itself to a red heat, and the proportion of
quicksilver must be added a ladleful at a time, and stirred quickly with
a piece of iron just in sufficient quantity to make three or four
bullets. If the quicksilver is subjected to red heat in the large
leadpot, it will evaporate." Proper alloy, or spelter, had best be
ordered at a gun-maker's shop, and taken from England instead of lead:
different alloys of spelter vary considerably in their degree of
hardness, and therefore more than one specimen should be tried.

Shape of Bullets.--Round iron bullets are worthless, except at very
close quarters, on account of the lightness of the metal: for the
resistance of the air checks their force extremely. Whether elongated
iron bullets would succeed, remains to be Tried. Some savages--as, for
instance, those of Timor--when in want of bullets, use stones two or
three inches long. Some good sportsmen insist on the advantage, for
shooting at very close quarters, of cleaving a conical bullet nearly down
to its base, into four parts; these partly separate, and make a fearful
wound. I suppose that the bullet leaves the gun with the same force as if
it were entire; and that it traverses too short a distance for the
altered form to tell seriously upon the speed: when it strikes, it acts
like chain-shot.

Bullets, to carry.--Bullets should be carried sewn up in their patches,
for the convenience of loading, and they should not fit too tight: a few
may be carried bare, for the sake of rapid loading.

Recovering Bullets.--When ammunition is scarce, make a practice of
recovering the bullets that may have been shot into a beast; if they are
of spelter, they will be found to have been very little knocked out of
shape, and may often be used again without recasting.

Shot and Slugs.--Travellers frequently omit to take enough shot, which
is a great mistake, as birds are always to be found, while large game is
uncertain: besides this, shot gives amusement; and ducks, quails, and
partridges are much better eating than antelopes and buffaloes. It must
be borne in mind, that a rifle will carry shot quite well enough, on an
emergency. Probably No. 7 is the most convenient size for shot, as the
birds are likely to be tame; and also because a traveller can often fire
into a covey or dense flight of birds--and the more pellets, the more
execution. If birds are to be killed for stuffing, dust-shot will also be
wanted; otherwise, it is undoubtedly better to take only one size of
shot.

Shot is made in manufactories, as follows:--Arsenic is added to the
lead, in the proportion of from 3 lbs. to 8 lbs. of arsenic to 1000 lbs.
of lead. The melted lead is poured through cullenders drilled with very
fine holes, and drops many feet down, into a tub of water; 100 feet fall
is necessary for manufactories in which No. 4 shot is made; 150, for
larger sorts. If the shot turns out to be lens-shaped, there has been too
much arsenic; if hollow, flattened, or tailed, there has been too little.
Pewter or tin is bad, as it makes tailed shot. The Shot are sorted by
sieves; bad shot are weeded out, by letting the shot roll over a
slightly-inclined board, then the sho that are not quite round roll off
to the side. Lastly, the shot is smoothed by being shaken up in a barrel
with a little black-lead.